.STANDARD AMERICAN 

f PLUMBING. 



i iii-^i* 





1 





^ Hot Ain 
l0t%ter!!eating 
Steam, and 
Gm JPtttfng 



The World's Greatest Auforities 

:Messks.Clo¥& Donaimon 



xsef 



!l^ 



ILLUSTHmiED 




Class 
Book 



XJiAizB 



r. 



f-^ 



Copyright 1^^. 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



STANDARD AMERICAN PLUMBING 

HOT AIR AND HOT WATER HEATING 

STEAM AND GAS FITTING 



Among the subjects this valuable book treats of are Sani- 
tary Plumbing, covering details regarding the installation 
of hot and cold water drainage systems. 



MODERN HOT WATER, HOT AIR AND 
STEAM HEATING 

Heating systems, steam boilers, piping system, radiators, 
hot water heating, estimating, piping and fittings. 

STEAM AND GAS FITTING. 
WORKING DRAWINGS. 



FULLY ILLUSTRATED 



By clow and DONALDSON 



Special Exclusive Edition 

Printed by 

FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO. 

EXPRESSLY FOR i ,^ ' ' 

SEARS, ROEBUCK & COMPANY 

CHICAGO, ILL. 

1911 






<(" 



<^> 



Copyright 1911 

BY 

Fkedeeick J. Drake. 




©CI,A292593 



PREFACE. 



This book is a practical up-to-date work on Sanitary 
Plumbing, comprising useful information on the wip- 
ing and soldering of lead pipe joints and the installa- 
tion of hot and cold water and drainage systems into 
modern residences. Including the gravity-tank sup- 
ply and cylinder and tank system of water heating and 
the pressure-cylinder system of water heating. Con- 
nections for bath tub. Connections for water closet. 
Connections for laundry tubs. Connections for wash- 
bowl or lavatory. A modern bathroom. Bath tubs. 
Lavatories. Closets. Urinals. Laundry tubs. Shower 
bath. Toilet room in office building. Sinks. Faucets. 
Bibb-cocks. Soil-pipe fittings. Drainage fittings. 
Plumber's tool kit, etc., etc. 

THE AUTHOR, 



HOUSE DRAINAGE. 

Tlie fact that plumbing during the past ten 
years has reached a most remarkable stage of de^ 
velopment in the construction of improved sys- 
tems of sewerage, house drains, ventilation and 
fixtures, is due to several causes. 

In the first place, the manufacturers of plumbing 
supplies in their pursuit of commercial supremacy 
have employed a number of sanitary engineers, 
who by experimenting and investigation, have 
perfected systems and fixtures which are a pre- 
ventative against the dangers of sewer gas and 
their subsequent results, such as typhoid, scarlet 
fever, dysentery, etc., coming as tlie}^ frequently 
do from no apparent cause, as far as modern 
science will permit. 

Secondly, good and safe plumbing has ceased 
to be a luxury. Its protection against the above 
mentioned diseases, and its safeguard to good 
health, have made it ai necessity. Heretofore 
many earnest, well-meaning persons, not appre- 
ciating the importance of correct drainage and 
plumbing, were inclined to sacrifice this vital fac- 
tor in their buildings, and even to-day the remark 
of some builder is often heard, to the effect that 
the balance of the house has cost so much more 

7 



8 HOUSE DRAINAGE 

than was originally intended, that no more money 
than is absolutely necessary can be expended for 
the plumbing. The knowledge and skill which is 
employed for the construction of the rest of the 
house, should be as carefully applied to the sewer, 
ventilation, bath and toilet rooms, and their tit- 
tings. 

Modern knowledge has taken the place of igno- 
rance and neglect, and the fixtures and systems, 
which wore thought good enough ten years ago, 
are to-day branded as old, on account of their not 
being a proper safeguard against disease. Every 
builder should weigh these facts well, and make 
himself familiar with the dangers arising from 
putting in a poor system, as even the smallest 
leak will cause sickness and often death. 

The first subject to be taken up in the plumbing 
line, is the house drain, which are the pipes which 
carry from the house the liquid and soil refuse. 
The accumulated waste from food, clothing and 
bathing, tends to decay, and must be removed 
promptly and properly, or disease will result. 
The sewer which conveys the matter from the 
dwelling, must be absolutely perfect. In all cases, 
the sewer pipe within the foundation wall, should 
be extra heavy cast-iron pipe, coated inside and 
out with hot asphaltum, and should run through 
the foundation wall, and the connection should be 
made to the vitrified sewer at least ten feet out- 
side of the building wall. The connection be- 



HOUSE DRAINAGE 



tween the iron and vitrified soil jDipe sliould be 
carefully made at X and cemented tight with a 
good grade of Portland cement. A good idea is to 
incase the connection at X in a block of concrete, 
which will prevent the breaking of the joint at 
this point. 

In the drawing Fig. 1 an installation is shown 
which is commonly used by a great many plumb- 



^'?t«^^i>l«?»|^»J:ia:i^ij?^^^;^ 




ir^iii^^^^ 



Fig. 1. 



ers, but which has many disadvantages. The 
trap at A, which is placed in the connecting 
sewer, to prevent the ingress of foul gasesi from 
the main sewer, is in a poor location, on account 
of its inaccessibility. The vent opening to the 
fresh-air inlet at B ventilates the house system of 
drain pipes. This vent is often placed between 
the sidewalk and the curb, or in the front yard. 
The vent bonnet is very liable to become loose or 



10 HOUSE DRAINAGE 

broken, which will permit of dirt, stones, and 
sticks falling into the opening so left, and choke 
the sewer, which necessitates digging down to the 
bottom to clean it out. Another objection to plac- 
ing a vent in a position sncli as shown, is that 
grass and other vegetation is liable to grow np 
around and into it, thereby destroying its effi- 
ciency, ^^lien a main disconnecting trap must 
be located outside of the building and under- 
ground, there should be built a brick manhole 
around it for easy access. The manhole for this 
purpose, should be two feet and tive inches in 
diameter at the base, and closed on the top with 
a limestone cover, three inches in thickness, with 
an eighteen-inch diameter round cast-iron lid, 
which should have a one-inch bearing on the stone 
all around. 

The drainage system illustrated in Fig. 2 is a 
very excellent one for a residence. The fittings 
as shown are standard stock articles, and conse- 
quently reduce the cost to a minimum. In the 
ordinary residence, a four-inch pipe is sufficiently 
large enough to carr}^ away all of the sewerage. 
A drainage pipe must not be so large, that the 
ordinary flow of water will fail to float and carry 
away the refuse which ordinarily accompanies 
water. The pipe should be laid to grade, or a 
fall of one foot in forty feet. Care should be ex- 
ercised to allow a large enough opening in the 
wall where the pipes pass through it, and espe- 



HOUSE DEAINAGE 



11 




Fig. 2. 



12 HOUSE DRAINAGE 

eially over them, to allow for setting of the wall 
without touching the pipes. 

Extra heavy cast iron soil pipe, weighing thir- 
teen pounds to the foot, coated inside and out 
with hot asphaltum, should be used in all cases 
for house drainage. 

At A is shown a double-vent opening running 
trap. By calking a four-inch brass ferrule, with 
a brass-trap screw ferrule, into the hub at C, an 
opening which gives free access tO' the drainage 
system on the sewer end is obtained. Care should 
be taken in making this joint, and a good grade 
of spun oakum should be packed around the fer- 
rule, with an iron yarning tool. The hub should 
then be run full at one pouring with soft molten 
lead, and then thoroughly calked with a blunt 
calking iron, which will make an absolutely air- 
tight joint. The trap-screw cover should be 
screwed tightly into the ferrule with a good plia- 
ble gasket. It is very necessary that this joint be 
hermetically sealed, as the pipe X will constantly 
be loaded with sewer-gas from the main sewer, 
and any defective work at this joint will allow 
the gas to escape into the basement. The vent 
opening at B is to be treated in the same man- 
ner, giving an opening which permits easy access 
to the trap. 

The air vent pipe D is run at an angle of forty- 
five degrees, and the extension E, which is run 
to the surface in this particular instance, is run 



HOUSE DRAINAGE 13 

close to the foundation wall, and the elbow calked 
on the top of the pipe, which prevents a possibil- 
ity of any sticks, stones or other debris getting 
into same and retarding a thorough circulation. 
In order to have this drainage system properly 
vented, the fresh-air inlet pipe should be the same 
size as the drain pipe. Where it is impractical 
or impossible to run this fresh-air vent up close 
to the foundation wall and turn it over as shown, 
it can be run as shown by F, and when placed in 
the yard the inlet pipe can be capped with a regu- 
lar air vent-cap fitting. Care should be taken in 
placing this fresh-air inlet, so that the chances 
of having it knocked off and broken will be as 
small as possible. 

The extension piece in all cases should be long- 
enough to permit of the opening in the vent-cap 
being, at least, eight inches above the gTound. 
In the drawing the sewer or drain pipe is shown 
above the floor. In cases of this kind rests or 
supports should be provided at an interval of ^ve 
feet, or in other words at every joint, to prevent 
the same from sagging and probably breaking 
the joints. When placed underground the top of 
openings B and C should be on a level with the 
flooring. In case of a shallow sewer in the street, 
the piping can be suspended from the ceiling, 
with a good heavy hanger supported by a joist 
clamp or swivel joint, which will permit the 



14 



HOUSE DRAINAGE 



hanger being shortened oa^ lengthened after the 
pipe has been hung. 



BACKWATER TRAPS. 

Backwater gate valves, are nsed on house 
drainage systems, where the street sewers are so 
small that excessive rain storms flood the system, 




Fig, 



and back up into the house drain pipe. The body 
of the valve is of iron, and the gate valve is made 
of fine brass, with planed face to make it water 
and gas-tight. The valve is hung with heavy 
brass hinges, and in a<ition is automatic, by means 
of which the flow of sewer water, gas and refuse 
from the public sewer is prevented from backing 



HOUSE DRAINAGE 15 

up into the house drains. The cover on the in- 
spection clean-out is fastened down to a gasket 
with heavy screws counter-sunk so as to be flush 
with the top, and which are easily removed for 
inspection and flushing purposes. 

The trap is shown in Fig. 3 with an iron exten 
gion man-hole, which extends from the drain in 
the ground to the surface of the cellar floor, and 
is provided with a water and gas-tight metal 
cover bolted to a gasket, which can be easily re- 
moved, and which prevents disturbing floors and 




Pig. 4. 

concrete, when there is any necessity of inspect- 
ing the interior. A combination house drain trap 
and back-water trap with vent opening and in- 
spection opening or a cleanout opening, is shown 
in Fig. 4. A trap of this type, or, in fact, any 
trap should be set perfectly level with regard to 
the water seal. If the inlet to the trap is tipped 
up, it will not retain enough water to form a 



It) HOUSE DRAINAGE 

water seal, and if the outlet is tipped up, too 
much water will be retained, and will back up 
into the drain pipe. These traps should be placed 
back of the house drain sewer trap and before the 
air-vent opening fitting. These gates should 
never be used instead of a drainage trap, but in 
connection with same. 



DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE. 

The disposal of sewerage in districts where 
there are no public sewers at hand is often a mat- 
ter of difficulty. Formerly, it was believed that 
if a running body of water, river or creek, was 
at band, into which the sewerage could be emp- 
tied, the question of adequate sewer systems was 
solved. Frequent epidemics of diphtheria and 
scarlet fever, have called forth careful investiga- 
tion, which has proven that the pollution of 
streams contiguous to domestic water supplies 
with sewerage, is one of the greatest dangers to 
liealth. This subject is being more closely stud- 
ied every year, which is probably due to the wide 
publicity given it in discussions and reports of 
health departments. It is the purpose to con- 
sider some of the best sanitary systems and ap- 
pliances applicable to the convenience and health 
of country districts. A system which is adaptable 
for one place will not prove an adequate or ef- 
fectual system for another. It lies with the plumb- 
er or builder to study the conditions as they exist, 
and to exercise a little common sense. 

The old out-door closet, with its revolting 
stench and inconvenience, is rapidly disappearing. 
Private and public water service have made it 

17 



18 DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE 

possible to install a modeTn bath room, even in 
the country, but the sewer disposal in most cases, 
is a puzzling proposition. 

The primitive method of installing a leaching 
cesspool, which is a hole dug in the ground deep 
enough to allow five or six feet of space below the 
inlet end of the house drain pipe, and ^ye or six 
feet wide, walled up with loose stones, the bottom 
left loose and filled with about a foot of small 
stones and the top walled over with a tight arch, 
and the earth filled in to the grade level thereby 
depending on the liquid to ooze away through the 
porous strata, has a great many disadvantages. 
In the first place, in communities where the neigh- 
bors depend on wells for their water supply, it is 
very dangerous, as it invariably pollutes the sub- 
soil in the neighbo'rhood and contaminates the 
well water supply. On a farm where plenty of 
ground is available, if located at a good distance 
from the dwelling, and at a lower level in the op- 
posite direction from^ the well, it may be used 
without causing any harm. In case such a cess- 
pool is used, the arch should be built up to an 
opening, twenty inches in diameter, and run to 
the surface and closed with an inspection cover 
hermetically sealed by a rubber gasket. 

The system of sub-surface irrigation for sewer- 
age disposal has been very well thought of by our 
best sanitary engineers. It consists of two abso- 
lutely tight cesspools or concrete receptables, as 



COUNTRY WATER SUPPLY 




20 DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE 

shown in Fig. 5, built circular in shape, arched 
over, and with extended manholes to the surface, 
with tight inspection covers, also provided with 
an air-vest opening for the escape of gases, one 
tank to receive the drain from the house and to 
retain the solids and grease. The other for the 
liquid sewerage, connected together with an over- 
flow pipe in such a manner that the first basin is 
drained into the second, without disturbing the 
grease and scum in the top of the first one, with a 
baffle plate, as shown, to prevent an underflow 
current from carrying the solids through to the 
second basin. 

In the drawing an inspection basin is shown' 
with the syphon for emptying the liquid outside 
of the second basin. The advantage of this is 
that in case of the syphon failing to work prop- 
erly, it is accessible without disturbing the other 
two tanlvs. Another veiy frequent construction, 
which, of course, avoids the expense of the inspec- 
tion basin, is to place the syphon in the second 
tank and protect it with a wire screen. The ad- 
vantage of having the inspection basin, of course, 
is obvious, and hardly needs to be further com- 
mented upon here. The opening from the syphon 
is run with a four or six-inch vitrified salt glazed 
sewer pipe with tightly cemented joints, to a point 
down gTade, where it is connected with four by 
two inch Y branches to a series of two or three- 
inch porous drain tile, which should be laid in a 



DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE 21 

trench about ten inches deep, never deeper, on 
boards, with a very small fall about three or four 
inches per hundred feet, tiles to be laid with 
open joints, and joints to be covered with a half 
ring of vitrified clay or cup, to protect the same 
from filling up when buried. The liquid tank can 
be emptied in several ways, either with a sluice 
valve or a gate valve, both of which necessitates 
personal attention. The advantage of using the 
syphon is that it is automatic. 

There are a great many different kinds of sy- 
phons on the market, and it is sometimes a matter 
of personal opinion as to which is the best. The 
liquid tank should not be emptied more often 
than once every twenty-four hours, which allows 
plenty of time for the ground to thoroughly drain, 
and to breathe in more oxygen, and then in a vol- 
ume sufficiently large enough to fill all the drain 
pipes at once, to insure an even distribution. This 
system is, of course, preferably adapted to a 
porous or gravel soil. In places where clay soil 
conditions exist, the soil should be drained at 
least four feet below the level with porous drain. 



gSSBSSt 



COUNTRY WATER SUPPLY. 

The procuring of a water supply in the country 
depends largely upon the surrounding conditions. 
Of course, when the source of the water supply 
is at a higher level than the house, a gravity sys- 
tem is the least complicated, and very often the 
cheapest. When the house is located at a reason- 
able height above the water supply, which could 
be made to supply an eight or ten-foot head, the 
hydraulic ram could be used. Rams will work, 
and work successfully, where the spring or brook 
is only three feet higher than the ram head, as 
the height or head increases the more powerfully 
the ram operates, and its ability to force water to 
a greater elevation and distance correspondingly 
strengthens. The best wearing results will be se- 
cured where the head or fall does not exceed ten 
feet; the head on the discharge pipe may be from 
five to ten times the head on the drive pipe. As a 
specific example: It might be said a fall of ten feet 
from brook or spring to the ram is sufficient to 
raise water to any point, say 150 feet above the 
machine, while the same amount of fall would also 
raise water to a point considerably higher, though 
the quantity of water discharged will be propor- 
tionately diminished as the height and distance 
increase. 

22 



COUNTRY WATER SUPPLY 23 

Rule for Estimating Delivery of Water. Multi- 
ply the number of gallons supplied to the ram 
per minute by three, and this product by the 
number of feet in head or fall of drive pipe, and 
divide by four times the number of feet to be 
raised. The result is the number of gallons raised 
per minute. Example: With a supply of ten gal- 
lons per minute delivered to a ram under a head 
or fall of ten feet, how much water can be raised 
to an elevation of 100 feet? 

10 X 3 X 10 

==.75 gallons per minute. 

100 X 4 

To obtain a water supply which will deliver 
water at any faucet in a house, yard or barn, it is 
necessary not only to pump the water, but to 
have some means of storing it under pressure. 
The elevated tank delivers it by gravity pressure, 
and, when used, should be placed at least eight 
to ten feet above the highest point from which 
the water is to be drawn, to insure a respectable 
velocity of discharge. 

Compressed Air System. The principle of de- 
livering water and other liquids by pressure of 
compressed air is very old, but it was not until 
recently that this principle was employed to fur- 
nish domestic water supply. 

One of the greatest advantages of the com- 



^=Ti 



24 COUNTRY WATER SUPPLY 

pressed air system is that it does away with the 
elevated tank, and there are a great many defects 
in the elevated tank system. If placed in the at- 
tic, it is not high enough to afford a sufficient 
pressure to be any protection against fire. An- 
other objection is the weight of the tank, when 
filled with water, is very liable to crack the plas- 
tering and to leak. Another serious defect of the 
elevated tank, when placed in an attic or on a 
tower is the exposure to weather, in the winter 
it freezes and in the summer it becomes warm. 

In the compressed air system the tank is placed 
either in the ground below the frost line or in the 
basement, and the water is pumped into the bot- 
tom of the tank with a force pump, which may be 
operated by hand, windmill, gas engine or hot- 
air engine. Another opening in the bottom de- 
livers water to the faucet in the house, yard or 
barn. As the water is pumped into the bottom 
of the tank the air above it, not having an outlet, 
is compressed. This pressure is increased and 
maintained by an automatic air valve. It does 
away with the elevated tank, and delivers water 
at an even temperature all year around. The 
tank and pipes leading to and from it are protect- 
ed from the weather. A pressure of fifty pounds 
is easily obtained, which equals the pressure from 
an elevated tank one hundred and ten feet high. 
This affords first-class fire protection and enables 
the country residents to have all the sanitary con- 



COUNTRY WATER SUPPLY 25 

veniences of a city home. A double system of 
this kind can also be installed, one for furnishing 
well or drinking water to the fixtures, and an- 
other one supplying soft water from the cistern. 

In Fig. 6 a steel storage tank is shown buried 
in the ground below the frost line, water is 
pumped into it by hand or windmill. This pump 
forces both air and water into the tank at the 
same time. A connection run to the surface near 
the house to a yard hydrant with hose connec- 
tion furnishes water for sprinkling and fire pro- 
tec4:ion, another branch supplies water to the 
barn, under pressure. 

In Fig. 7 a steel storage tank is shown placed 
in the basement and supplied with a hand pump. 
These two illustrations will serve to give some 
idea of the extent to which a system of this kind 
can be put to use. The tank is practically inde- 
structible, and, unlike the elevated tank, requires 
no expense after it has been put in. When the 
tank is one-half full of water, the air which origi- 
nally filled the entire tank will be compressed 
into the upper half of it and will exert a pressure 
of fifteen pounds to the square inch, and if a 
straight supply pipe was run from the bottom of 
the tank, this air pressure would force the water 
to a height of thirty-three feet. For ordinary 
elevation the best results are obtained by main- 
taining in the tank excess air pressure of ten 
pounds, that is, enough air to give ten pounds 



acs: 



26 



COUNTRY WATER SUPPIiY 




^A7iK/i J JO inN^->Y^ \ 

3M\/A yo3HJ~^ 




COUNTRY WATER SUPPLY 



27 




28 COUNTRY WATER SUPPLY 

pressure when the tank contains no water. Thus 
equipped, a tank will deliver twice as much water 
as otherwise. 

Most of the country towns at the present day* 
are supplied with efficient water systems, and it is 
a very easy matter to install a hydraulic system 
which supplies hot and cold soft water to every 
fixture in the house automatically and all of the 
time. One of the principal objects desired in the 
hydraulic system is to utilize the waste water 
from the hydraulic pump so that there will be 
no loss, which is quite an item when the water 
is paid for at so much per thousand feet. 

The system shown in Fig. 8 is a very simple 
and inexpensive one. The city water supply is 
run direct to the hydraulic pump, and the city 
water passing through it is piped direct to the 
fixtures at which cold hard water is desired. In 
the drawing this pipe supplies the closet tank and 
one faucet over the lavator}^ for drinking purposes 
in the bathroom, also one faucet over the sink 
and two connections to laundry tub, which is very 
convenient, as the cold water can be utilized for 
rinsing purposes, thereby saving a great deal of 
the soft water. The operation of the same is, that 
when any of these five faucets are opened, it per- 
mits the city water to pass through the pump and 
at the same time operate the pump, which pumps 
soft water from the cistern to the tank in the 
attic from which a pipe is run down to the base- 



Mi 



29 

fferent 

he hot 

leater. 

nt fix- 

a pipe 

asting 

D flow. 

when 

water 

;ystem 

le ma- 

as A, 

cistern 

closed, 

5 emp- 

d city 

, close 

ts the 

ithout 

to fill 

neces- 

water 

rough 

done, 

ed af- 

)efore, 



he at- 
f it is 
:o the 




V W T 






FIG. 8. THREE-PIPE SYSTEM 



28 

pressu] 
equipp 
as othe 

Most 
are sujc 
a very 
which 
fixture 
time, 
hydrar 
from t 
no loss 
is paid 

The 
and in 
run di 
water 
fixture 
the dr^ 
one f ai 
in the 
and tw 
conven 
rinsing 
the sof 
when f 
mits tl 
at the 
soft w 
attic f 



COUNTRY WATER SUPPLY 29 

ment with branches taken off at the ditferent 
floors to supply cold soft water, hence, to the hot 
water heater tank, from there on to the heater, 
back to the tank and around to the different fix- 
tures supplying hot soft wafer. The return pipe 
prevents a dead end which necessitates wasting 
the soft water before the hot water begins to flow. 

A method is shown whereby it is possible when 
the cistern is emptied to fill either the city water 
supply only with city water, or the entire system 
without its passing through the pump by the ma- 
nipulation of three globe valves, designated as A, 
B and C. When the pump is pumping cistern 
water to the attic tank, valve B and C are closed, 
and valve A is opened. When the cistern is emp- 
tied, and it is desired to fill only the cold city 
water pipe with water, leave valve C closed, close 
valve A and open valve B, which permits the 
w^ater to flow into the cold water pipe without 
passing through the pump. If it is desired to fill 
the entire system with city water, all that is neces- 
sary is to open valve C, which permits the water 
to flow up to the attic tank and down through 
the balance of the system. When this is done, 
valve I) on the overflow pipe should be closed af- 
ter the water begins to overflow, and not before, 
as the system would become air-bound. 

An overflow pipe is shown leading from the at- 
tic tank to the cistern within the house. If it is 
possible to run this overflow pipe out onto the 



30 COUNTRY WATER SUPPLY 

roof so tliat the overflow Avill return to the cistern 
through the eavestrough and downspout pipe to 
the cistern, it is best to do so, as the cistern water 
then has a chance to become aerated. The pipe to 
supply the sill cock or yard hydrant for sprink- 
ling purposes should be taken off at a point before 
the supply to pump, to prevent the unnecessary 
work of the pump when sprinking. In case of a 
basement closet being installed, a connection can 
be taken from the city water supply pipe run to 
the laundry tub, three-quarter-inch galvanized 
iron pipe is sufficiently large enough for all of 
the main supply pipes with one-half-inch branches 
to the different fixtures. These hydraulic rams 
are manufactured so as to work, and work suc- 
cessfully, at as low a pressure as ten pounds per 
square inch. 



CELLAR OR BASEMENT DRAINS. 

Floor drains, when nsed in cellar or basement 
should be connected to the leader side of a rain 
leader trap wherever it is possible. Some sanitary 
engineers go so far as to say that floor drains 
should never be used, their objection to them be- 
ing that the floor is not washed often enough to 
furnish sufficient water to maintain a water seal 
at all times against sewer gas ingress, and their 
argument is well taken, but floor drains in a base- 
ment are very convenient, and should be part of 
a well-installed sanitary sewer system. 

In case of a seepage of water through the foun- 
dation walls, during a rainy period, it is well to 
be provided with some means to carry the water 
away quickly, without having to resort to the 
laborious practice of pumping. 

The evils of a floor drain, are not so much due 
to their inefficienc}^, as they are to the care taken 
of them. The cemented floor basement of the 
modern home today is just as important to be 
kept clean as the bathroom, and the thorough 
housekeeper takes just as much pride in it, and 
realizes the necessity for having it so from a sani- 
tary standpoint. 

The old method of installing a floor drain or 
31 



32 



CELLAK OR BASEMENT DRAINS 



floor outlet which consisted of placing a running 
trap in the line of drain pipe to the catch-basin, 
and running a piece of pipe to the floor level and 
simply closing the opening with a bar strainer 
grate is wrong. The grate, even when cemented 
into the hub end of the pipe, will in time become 
loosened, and dirt and other rubbish will soon 
clog up the trap and render it useless. 




Fig. 9. 

As before said, the great objection to a base- 
ment floor drain in the ordinary house, is that 
there is seldom sufficient water used on the base- 
ment floor, to maintain a perfect water seal in the 
trap. To neglect to see that the floor drain trap 
is not always filled with water and to argue 
against its installation on that point is wrong. 

Floor drains should never be used without a 
back-water valve, which will prevent sewer water 
from backing up into the basement. A number 



CEiLLAB OR BASEMENT DRAINS 33 

of different styles of floor drains are shown, which 
are built on the proper lines. The one shown in 
Fig. 9 is a combination floor drain and back-water 
gate valve. This accessible cleanout cellar drain 
flushing cesspool and back-water gate trap valve 
combination has much to be commended. It has 
a hinged strainer, through which seeping and 
floor waste water finds a direct outlet to the trap 
and sewer. The trap has a deep water seal, which 
is always desirable, and is always provided with 
a brass back-water gate valve or flap-valve which 
will not rust and which will close and hold tight 
against a back flow from the sewer. It also has 
a tapped opening to which a water supply pipe 
can be attached, and by means of a valve being 
placed on the pipe at some convenient point, the 
drain trap can be throroughly flushed and cleansed 
by simply opening the valve for a few minutes 
at a time. 

Another method oftentimes used to provide for 
a floor outlet to sewer is to run a piece of iron soil 
pipe from the trap on the sewer to the floor level, 
and to caulk into the hub of the pipe a brass fer- 
rule or thimble with a brass screwed cover, which 
is screwed down tight against a rubber gasket, as 
shown in Fig. 10. An outlet of this character is 
only opened when occasion demands, by unscrew- 
ing and removing the cover until its need is past. 

In Fig. 11 is shown an extra heavy cesspool 
suitable for barns, carriage room and places of 



34 CELLAR OR BASEMEiNT DRAINS 




Fig. 10. 




Fig. 11. 



CELLAR OR BASEMENT DRAINS 35 

like nature. Tlie top is sixteen inches square^ 
the body ten inches deep and has a four-inch out- 
let, suitable for caulking into the hub of a four- 
inch iron sewer pipe. The top cover or grating 
is heavy enough to permit of horses, wagons and 
carriages passing over it. The second grating or 
strainer is of finer mesh, which catches any ob- 
stacles which might clog up the sewer, it can be 
lifted out by the knob and easily cleaned at any 
time. The deep water seal in this trap is one of 
its good features, the bell or hood not only serves 
to maintain a water seal, but where used in stables 
is a shield over the outlet to prevent oats or grain 
of any description which might fall through the 
second strainer from getting into the sewer. 

Care should be taken to prevent the bottom of 
the cesspool from filling up with fine strainings. 

Fig. 12 is a combination floor strainer and back- 
water seal and is used in the hub of a sewer pipe 
which extends down to the trap placed in the 
sewer run. The rubber ball prevents the flooding 
of the basement from backing up of water, by be- 
ing floated to seat above. 

In Fig. 13 is shown a floor drain and trap, de- 
signed especially for hospital operating rooms 
and other places where it is desirable not only to 
cleanse thoroughly the floor, but also to remove 
all sediment from the trap itself for obvious sani- 
tary reasons. The trap is of cast iron, and is 
enamelled inside. This gives it an impervious 



36 CELLAR OR BASEMENT DRAINS 




f" s 



Fig. X3. 



CELLAR OR BASEMENT DRAINS 37 

and smooth surface and prevents the trap from 
becoming coated and slimy. This trap is provided 
with heavy brass cast flushing rim and has a brass 
removable strainer. 

In the sectional view is shown the method by 
which the water supply is connected to both the 
rim and trap, by means of which not only eYery 
portion of the body may be cleansed, but also all 
sediment removed from the jet inlet at the bottom. 

The trap is built especially to maintain a deep 
seal and is three inches in diameter. 



TRAPS. 

A. trap is a device or fitting used to allow the 
free passage through it of liquids and solids, and 
still prevent the passage of air or gas in either 
direction. There are two kinds of traps used on 
plumbing fixtures known as syphon traps and 
anti-syphon traps. The simplest trap is the sy- 
phon trap — a horizontal pipe bent as shown in 




Fig. 14. 

Fig. 14. This forms a pocket which will retain 
enough liquid to prevent air or gas from passing. 
The dip or loop is called the seal, and should 
never be less than one and one-half inches. This 
type of trap is what is known as a running-trap. 
This is not a good trap to use, and it is only capa- 
ble of withstanding a very low back pressure. 

38 



TRAPS 



39 



The trap most generally used is what is known 
as the S trap, as shown in Fig 15. When this trap 
is subjected to a back-pressure, the water backs 
up into the vertical pipe, and naturally will with- 
stand a greater pressure than the running-trap 
type— about twice as much. 




The trap shown in Fig 16 is what is known as 
a P trap, and in Fig 17 as three-quarter S trap, 
and has the same resisting power as the S trap. 

A trap may lose its seal either by evaporation, 
self-syphonage or by suction. There is no danger 



40 



TEAPS 



of a trap losing its seal in an occupied house 
from evaporation, as it would take a number of 
week's time, under ordinary conditions, to evapo- 
rate enough water to destroy the seal. 




Fig. 17. 



TRAPS 



41 



A trap can be syphoned when connected to an 
nnvented stack, and then only when the waste 
pipe from the trap to the stack extends below the 
dip, so as to form the long leg of the syphon as 
in Fig. 18. 




42 TRAPS 

When two fixtures are installed one above the 
other, with unvented traps and empty into one 
stack, the lower trap can be syphoned by aspira- 
tion. The water emptying into the stack at the 
higher point in passing to the trap inlet of the 
lower fixture, creates a partial vacuum which 
sucks the water out of the trap at the lower point. 
To prevent this, what is known as back-venting 
is resorted to, back-venting not only protects the 
trap against syphonage, but relieves the seal from 
back-pressure, by equalizing the pressure on both 
sides of the seal. All revent pipes must be con- 
nected to vent pipes at such a point that the vent 
opening will be above the level of the water in 
the trap. 

In Fig. 19 two basins are shown connected to 
soil pipe with S traps and back— vented into the 
air-vent pipe, both connecting into the attic into 
an increaser, which projects through the roof. 
This drawing is given to illustrate the proper 
back-venting to prevent syphonage of basin traps, 
and when it is necessary to run separate stacks 
for wash basins, such as are sometimes installed 
in bedroom^s, the main waste stack must be two 
inches in diameter and the vent pipe one and one- 
half inches, either cast iron or galvanized wrought 
iron. 

Non-syphon traps are those in which the seal 
cannot be broken under any reasonable condi- 
tions. Some water can t^ syphoned from the best 



TRAPS 



43 



of non-syphon traps made, but not enough to de 
stroy their seal. The commonest non-syphoning 




Fig. 19. 



44 



TRAPS 



trap is known as a drum trap, which is four inches 
in diameter and ten inches deep. Sufficient water 
always remains in this trap to maintain its seal, 
even when subjected to the severest of tests. 

Fig. 20 shows a trap, which is the type general- 
ly used to trap the bathtub. This trap is provided 




Fig. 20. 

with a brass trap-screw top for clean-out pur- 
poses, made gas and water tight against a rubber 
gasket. A trap of this kind would not be suitable 
for a lavatory, its principal fault being that owing 
to the enlarged body they are not self-cleaning, 
affording a lodging place for the depositing of 
sediment. 



TRAPS 



45 



The non-syphon trap to he used is one in which 
the action of the water is rotary, as it thoroughly 
scours the trap and keeps it clean, such as is 
shown in Fig'. 21. This trap depends upon an 
inner partition to effect this rotary movement, 
and is so constructed that its seal cannot be brok- 
en by syphonic action and is permitted by health 





Fig. 



and sanitary departments, where it is impossible 
to run a separate vent pipe to the roof. 

One of the oldest traps is the Cudell trap, as 
shown in Fig. 22. The rubber ball being of slight- 
ly greater specific gravity than water rests on the 
seat and forms a seal when the water is not flow- 
ing through the trap. This ball prevents the seal 



46 



TRAPS 



of the trap being forced by back-pressure, and 
acts as a check against back flow of sewerage 
should drain stop up, and provides a seal if water 
is evaporated. 

Fig. 23 shows the old Bower trap. The water 
seal is maintained by the inlet leg, extending 




Fig. 22. 



down ijito the body below the outlet. The bot- 
tom of this trap is glass, brass or lead, which- 
ever is desired, and can be unscrewed from trap 
and thoroughly cleaned. 



HOT WATER SUPPLY. 

Cylinder System. In the cylinder system the 
principal difference from the tank system lies in 
the fact that the cylinder or reservoir of hot water 
lies beneath the draw-off pipes and not ahove 
them, as with the tank system. This being the 
case it is impossible to empty the reservoir un- 
knowingly or accidentally, should the cold water 
supply be shut off. 

Eeferring to Fig. 24, the flow-pipe proceeds 
from the extreme top of the waterback, and does 
not project through inside the waterback in the 
least degree. If it cannot be taken from the top, 
it must be connected to the side or back of the 
waterback as close to the top as it can be got, but 
the top connection should always be used if in any 
way possible. From the waterback the flow-pipe 
proceeds to the boiler and terminates five-eighths 
of the way wp from the bottom. Tlie pipe can 
enter the side of the boiler at the correct point, 
or it can come through lower down and be ex- 
tended up inside with a bend and short piece of 
pipe together without making two holes. 

The return pipe leaves the side of the boiler a&i 
close to the bottom as possible, or it can come 
from the bottom if desired. It then proceeds to 

47 



48 



HOT WATER SUPPLY 



the waterback and enters either through the top 
or the sidej terminating half-way down with a 
saddle boiler. Both of these pipes, the flow and 
the return, must have a rise from the waterback 
to the boiler of not less than 1 inch in 10 feet. 



1^:: 



s 



^r^ 



^ 



Fig. 24. 



7 



From the top of the boiler is carried the ex- 
pansion pipe. This also should rise 1 inch in 10 
feet from the boiler to its highest point. The 



HOT WATER SUPPLY 49 

liigliest point can be above the cold-water cistern 
or through the roof. 

The cold water supply to the system is a pipe 
direct from a cistern, as shown. This pipe must 
not be branched for any other purpose. 

It is of the highest importance that the cold 
water supply pipe should be of full size, and not 
choked or reduced in bore anywhere. The out- 
flow at the hot water faucet is exactly in ratio 
with the down-flow of water through this pipe, 
less friction, therefore everything possible must 
be done to give the water full and free passage 
and lessen the friction. This is done by having 
the pipe of good size, using bends and not elbows, 
or lead pipe, and seeing that the stop-cock, if there 
be one, has a straight full way through it. The 
stop-cock should be put near the boiler, so that 
the man who cleans the waterback, or effects re- 
pairs, does not have to traverse the house to shut 
the water off and afterwards to turn it on. A tee 
should be put on the cold water supply connec- 
tion, inside the boiler to spread the inflowing cold 
water over the bottom of the boiler. If this is not 
done the inflowing cold water will bore its way 
up through the hot water above, unless the pres- 
sure be quite low. 

An emptying cock should be put somewhere be- 
neath the boiler, but this cock must be provided 
with a loose key, so that only an authorised per- 
son can withdraw the water from the boiler. 



50 HOT WATER SUPPLY 

The draw-off pipes are all taken from the 
expansion pipe as shown. This pipe should there- 
fore be carried up by the best route to touch at 
the points where the faucets are, otherwise long 
single branches must be run. The expansion pipe, 
being a single tube, has no active or useful circu- 
lation in it. 

It must never be forgotten that, on opening a 
faucet, on a secondary circulation, water will pro- 
ceed from both directions to reach that faucet. 
The circulatory movements all cease, and quite a 
new action takes place. Water will come up from 
the top of the boiler and this will be hot. There 
will also be water coming up the secondary re- 
turn, and the temperature of this will depend on 
whence it comes. If connected as shown in Fig. 
25 then whatever water comes to the faucets will 
be hot, all there is of it, and when the temperature 
of the issuing water falls it may be known that 
the hottest has all been withdrawn. There have 
been several points at which the secondary re- 
turn has been connected with bad results, notably 
at the bottom of the boiler, into the primary re- 
turn (between the boiler and waterback), into the 
boiler, and even into the cold supply pipe just be- 
neath the boiler. These are wrong, and only 
one position is correct, as shown in Fig. 25. The 
point is from 3 inches to 6 inches from the top of 
the boiler according to its size. The latter would 



HOT WATER SUPPLY 



51 



be for a lOO-gallon boiler. A 50-gallon size would 
have the connection 4 inches from the top. 

Tank System. The usual arrangement of this 
system of water heating apparatus is illustrated 



_^_.^ 




— ^ 


t-T 




t 






^ 


^=1?^ '■ 

• 




-^3 


k 



Fig. 25. 



52 



HOT WATER SUPPLY 



in Fig. 26. The flow pipe should proceed from 
the extreme top or highest point of the water- 
back, preferably from the top plate, and not pro- 
ject through to the inside of the waterback in 
the least degree. If it is impossible to connect 



9 


n 






- 1 1 




Lis 


-> 1 






hi 




1^^ 


7 






fH 


7 — ^ 


JL 


y 


1 


nf 



Fig. 26. 



the flow pipe in the top plate of the waterback 
it should be located in the side or back, but as 
close to the top as possible. From the waterback 
the flow pipe should proceed to the tank and ter- 



HOT WATER SUPPLY 53 

minate in it about tliree-fourtlis of the way up, 
that is one-quarter of the height of the tank from 
the top. It may pass through the bottom and 
reach up inside as a stand pipe as shown in Fig. 
26, or it may enter the side at the required 
height. 

The return pipe should leave the bottom of the 
tank, being connected directly in the bottom or 
in the side of the tank near the bottom. It should 
never be more than an inch from the bottom. 
From the tank the return pipe should proceed 
directly to the waterback, and if entering the 
boiler through the top, should extend down- 
wards, three-fourths the height of the waterback. 

The draw-off pipes are taken from the flow pipe 
as shown. It therefore follows that the flow pipe 
should be carried in a direction which will bring 
it as near to all the faucets as possible. Instead 
of this, the most common practice appears to be 
to carry the circulating pipes by the most direct 
route from the waterback to the tank, and to con- 
sider the running of the branch pipes afterwards. 
There is no objection to the return pipe taking 
the shortest route, but the flow should be diverted 
to pass the work as near as possible. Failing this, 
there would have to be long single-pipe branches, 
and the fault of these is that so much cold water 
has to be drawn before the hot issues. This is not 
so much a fault at a bath, at which some cold 
water will probably be needed. At a lavatory 



54 



HOT WATER SUPPLY 



basin, however, the fault is very pronounced, the 
faucets being small and slow-running, and at no 
point is the quick arrival of warm water appre- 
ciated more than at this one. 



P« 



nil 



J 



T3 



Pig. 27. 



Cylinder-Tank System. This is simply a com- 
bination of the two systems previously described. 



msB^a 



HOT WATER SUPPLY 



55 



The tank system and the cylinder system both 
have good features which are retained in the cyl- 
inder-tank system, and also certain bad features 
which are eliminated in the combination system 





1 I 

A— 



Fig. 28. 



which may be here described briefly, the tank sys- 
tem ensures a good flow of water from the high 
faucets, while the cylinder system commonly has 



56 HOT WATER SUPPLY 

a very unsatisfactory issue of water from any fau- 
cets that are near the top of the house. On the 
other hand, the cylinder system is safest where 
the cold water supply is at all uncertain, as the 
cylinder— the reservoir of the apparatus— cannot 
be emptied. The ohject of the cylinder-tank sys- 
tem is therefore to ensure a good outflow at all 
taps by having a store of hot water above them, 
and to have a store of water which cannot be 
exhausted unknowingly if the cold water supply 
fails. 

Fig. 27 illustrates this system of appartus in 
outline, and the parts need nO' general description 
more than that given already. As to the sizes of 
the tank and cylinder, the best practice for gen- 
eral requirements is to make them of equal capa- 
city, and the two together should be no larger 
than one would be if alone. Thus, if a 50-gallon 
boiler would be the suitable size for a job erected 
on the ordinary cylinder system, then with the 
combined apparatus the boiler should be 25 gal- 
lons and the tank 25. In the cylinder-tank sys- 
tem illustrated in Fig. 27, the cold water supply 
is delivered into the tank directly from the cis- 
tern, while in the system shown in Fig. 28, the 
cold water supply is carried down to the cylinder. 



ismmmmmmmmmm/BtM 



HOT WATER PLUMBING. 

As the drawings shown in the article on Hot 
Water Supply are merely diagramatic outlines of 
the different systems and are only intended to il- 
lustrate the principle of the circulation, which is 
involved in the heating of water for domestic use, 
further description and additional drawings are 
here given to illustrate the two systems of water 
heating in common use, viz. : the pressure-cylinder 
system and the gravity-supply tank and cylinder 
system. 

In Fig. 29 is shown one of the simplest ar- 
rangements of the pressure-cylinder system for 
the successful heating of water for household use. 
The boiler, water-back and pipe connections are 
all plainly shown. Tn the boiler is a pipe extend- 
ing down from the top and connected with the 
cold water supply, which it discharges in the 
boiler a short distance from the bottom. The dis- 
tance down in the boiler which this pipe should 
extend depends upon the height that the pipe 
from the upper part of the water-back enters the 
boiler. The cold water supply should always en- 
ter the boiler at a considerable distance below 
the point of entrance of the pipe conveying the 
hot water from the water-back to the boiler. 

57 



58 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 



The greater the distance that the hot and cold 
water pipes are apart in the boiler, the better will 
be the circulation and the less time it will take 
to heat a given amount of water. 



3 





p= 


n 


^ ^ 




I = 


1 — 1 
t::l 


k 


r- 


i 



Fig. 29. 



The piping in the arrangement shown in Fig. 
29 is designed to deliver hot water on the floor 
above that on which the boiler is located. If hot 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 



59 



^ 


\t 




! 


1 




n n 






Vi ' 


1!lf 




)r^-4 




P"^ 


ft 


1 




W 




I 


L= 




u 


V— 1 ^ — [ 


1^ 


I 




[i 



Fig. 30. 



60 HOT WATER PLUMBING 

water is desired on the same floor a connection 
can be made in the pipe leading from the top of 
the boiler to the faucet on the floor above. 

Fig. 30 shows an arrangement of fixtures and 
piping to supply hot water on three floors by the 
pressure-cylinder system. Hot water is supplied to 
the kitchen sink on the ground floor, to a bath 
tub and wash bowl on the second floor and to a 
wash bowl on the third floor. The cold water 
supply pipe to the boiler is shown and the cold 
water connection to the kitchen sink, while the 
cold water pipes to the bath tub and wash bowls 
on the upper floors are omitted for the sake of 
simplicity. 

Fig. 31 shows one of the simplest forms of the 
gravity supply tank and cylinder systems, in 
which the boiler, water-back and hot water con- 
nections are all on the same floor. The cold water 
pipe goes to the floor above or to the attic as the 
case may be to the supply tank, where the supply 
of water is regulated by a ball float cock. An 
expansion pipe as shown should be provided in 
the hot water pipe leading from the boiler and ar- 
ranged to discharge into the supply tank. In Fig. 
32 a gravity-supply tank and cylinder system is 
shown, which is arranged to deliver hot water to 
the kitchen sink and also to a bath tub and wash 
bowl on the floor above. The cold water pipe is 
shown running up to the supply tank and also to 
the kitchen sink. For the sake of clearness and 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 



61 



to avoid confusion the cold water pipes leading 
to the wash bowl and bath tub are omitted. 

It must be remembered that the kitchen boiler 
is not a heater, it is simply a reservoir to keep a 




supply of hot water on hand so that it may be 
drawn when required. By this arrangement hot 
water may be had long after the fire has been ex- 



62 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 



tinguislied in tlie stove, as it stores itself by the 
law of gravitation at the upper part of the boiler, 
and is forced out by cold water entering below 
and remaining there without mingling with or 




Fig. 32. 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 63 

cooling' the hot water in the upper part of the 
boiler. It should be understood that the natural 
course of hot water, when confined in a boiler and 
depending for its motion on the difference be- 
tween its temperature and the temperature of oth- 
er water in the same boiler, is in a perpendicular 
or vertical direction. And consequently when 
the heating apparatus or pipes which have to 
convey the hot water from the water back to a 
boiler in which the hot water is to be stored in 
any position other than in a vertical position, 
friction is added which retards the flow of hot 
water just in proportion to the degree of angle 
from the vertical of the hot water pipes. 

A noise in the pipes and water-back, and also 
a rumbling noise in the boiler indicates that 
there is something wrong, and which requires 
attention. These noises are produced by differ- 
ent causes, sometimes on account of the way the 
upper pipe from the water-back in the stove is 
connected to the boiler. 

This pipe should always have some elevation 
from the water-back to where it enters the boiler. 
The more elevation the better the water will cir- 
culate. But the slightest rise in this pipe will 
make a satisfactory job. It should be a continu- 
ous rise if possible, the entire length from the 
water-back to the boiler. 

Another cause of this noise comes from the 
water-back being filled, or nearly so, with scale. 



64 HOT WATER PliUMBING 

which partly stops the water from circulating. 
Nearly all the troubles of this kind come from 
a bad circulation of water between the stove 
and boiler. If the trouble is allowed to continue 
very long without doing anything to improve it. 
it will grow worse, and perhaps stop up entirely. 
With the connections between the water-back in 
the stove and the boiler stopped up, what is to 
be expected? With a good fire in the stove un- 
der these conditions, an explosion of the water- 
baek, which may blow the stove to pieces and, 
perhaps, kill some of the occupants of the house. 

There are two conditions of things that will 
cause the water-back in a stove to explode. First, 
to have water in the water-back with its outlets 
or pipe connections stopped up, then have a fire 
started in the stove. The fire will generate steam 
in the water-back, and, having no outlet through 
which the steam might escape, an explosion must 
take place. The second way through which the 
water-back could explode is to have no water 
in the kitchen boiler, with a. good fire in the 
stove and the water-back red-hot, then allow the 
water to be turned on suddenly into the boiler 
and water-back. Under these conditions steam 
would be generated faster than it could escape 
through the small pipe connections, and would 
naturally result in an explosion. 

The different ways of connecting a water-back 
on any water heating device to an ordinary 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 



65 



kitchen boiler, are governed, to some extent, by 
the conditions in each individual case. 



Hot water -^ 

OUTLEX. 



V} 

O 
f 




|t>%:^3^ 



Fig. 33. 



In connecting a gas-heated water device, the 
connections should be made as shown in Fig. 



66 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 



B3, wliicli is known as a top connection, the 
particular reason being that it is possible, with 
a connection of this kind, to heat small quanti- 




Fig. 34. 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 



67 



ties of water and to heat it quickly, and water 
can be drawn within five minutes after lighting 
the gas the great advantage being the economy of 
fuel and time. A gas-heated water device should 
always be connected to a flue. 




When connecting a kitchen boiler to a water- 
back in a range, the connection should be made 
as shown in Fig. 34. As the range fire will 



68 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 



probably be kept burning all day, the question of 
fuel economy is not to be considered — the ad- 
vantage of a connection of this kind is that it 
gives a large body of water from which to draw 
at all times. 




Fig, 36. 



Connections to vertical and horizontal boilers, 
when connected to independent water heaters 
are shown in Figs. 35 and 36. 

Another device recentl}^ put on the market and 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 



69 




Fig. 37. 




70 HOT WATER PLUMBING 

shown in Fig. 37, is a combination reservoir and 
heater. This heater is unique in construction of 
water compartments inasmuch as all surfaces 
are exposed very advantageously to the flame. 
The central water compartment being directly 
over the flame and the pipe which carries hot 
water to the top of the tank enables it to supply 
hot water within a very short time. The gas 
supply is regulated by a thermostat, which auto- 
matically decreases the flow of gas when water 
is heated and automatically increases the flow of 
gas as soon as the hot water is drawn from the 
tank. Two clusters of blue flame gas burners, 
which are independent of each other, and can be 
used separately or both at the same time, fur- 
nish the heating medium. The advantage of 
this boiler, outside of the economy of fuel con- 
sumption, is that it requires little space for the 
installation and a great saving in the piping. 
Again the automatic gas regulating feature pre- 
vents the boiler from becoming over-heated and 
from its subsequent dangers, as the temperature 
of water is maintained at about 170 degrees Fah- 
renheit. 

In the sectional cut a steam coil is shown 
whereby the water can be heated with steam, in 
case it is installed, where steam is available. 

Plumber's Tools. The illustrations given in 
Figs. 38, 39 and 40, show a set of plumber's 
tools. The name of the tool is given with each 



HOT WATEE PLUMBING 



71 



Blow Pipe 



Round Iron: 



Pot Hook 

0— i 



Copper Hatchet Bolt 



Copper Pointed Bolt- 



Ladle^ 



Solder Pot 




Torch 




Wiping Cloths 




Soil Cup, 




Tack Mould 



• 



Tack Moukt 




Tool Bags 






'Ml 



Fig. 38. 



72 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 



Hammer 




Cold Chisel 



^^^^^P 



Floor Chisel 



Gouge 



Rasp 



File 



Basin Wrench 



'^1^=^ 



Saws 



Hack Saw. 



Compass Saw 

.1.. ■l iii^ l?^ 



CalWng Chisel 



Offset Calking Chisel 



n 



Yarning Chisel 



Fig. 39. 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 



73 



illustration, making further information unneces- 
sary. 

A larger number of tools tlian those shown 



Bossing Stick 



Dresser 



Side Edge 



Chipping Knives 

m 



Shave Hook. 



Tap Borer 



Turn IPin 



A 



Washer Cutter 





Bending Pin 



Drift Plug 



Fig. 40. 



Grease Box 



Will sometimes be necessary for special work, 
or work that has to be done under difficulties. 

Figs. 4.1 and 42 show two styles of plumber's 
blow-torches, and Figs. 43 and 44, two solder 



74 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 



pots. The air pressure is generated by means 
of rubber bulb in the solder pot shown in Fig. 
43, and by means of a small hand pump in the 
one shown in Fig. 44. 



-# 





Fig. 41. 

A rubber force cup for cleaning bathtubs, 
washbowls and sinks is shown in Fig. 45. 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 



75 




Fig. 42. 



Fig. 43. 







Fig. 44. 




Fig. 45. 



76 



HOT WATER PLUMBING 



A thawing steamer for thawing pipes that 
have been frozen during a cold spell is illus- 
trated in Fig. 46. 




1^. 






Fig. 46. 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS. 

Soil and Waste Pipe Fittings. One-quarter 
and one-sixth, and one-eighth and one-sixteenth 





Pig. 47. 





Fig. 48. 



cast iron soil pipe bends or elbows are shown 
in Figs. 47 and 48 respectively, and long one- 
quarter and one-eighth bend in Figs. 49 and 50. 

77 



78 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



Quarter bends with lieel and side outlets are 
sliown in Figs. 51 and 52. 

A long quarter turn or sanitary bend is shown 
in Fig. 53. 

Figures 54, 55 and 56 show a T-branch soil 
pipe with left-hand inlet, a sanitary T-branch 





Fig. 49. 



Fig. 50. 



with right-hand inlet and a Y-branch with right- 
hand inlet, respectively. 

A plain T-branch, a sanitary T-branch, a Y- 
branch and a half Y-branch are shown in Figs. 
57, 58, 59 and 60. 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



79 





Fig. 51. 



Fig. 52. 




Pig. 53. 



Fig. 54. 



80 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 





Fig. 55. 



Fig. 56. 





Fig. 57. 



Fig. 58. 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



81 



A plain T-brancli, a sanitary T-brancli, a cross 
and a sanitary cross all tapped for iron pipe are 



shown in Figs. 61 and 62. 





Pig. 59. 



Fig. 60. 





Fig. 61. 



82 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



A plain cross, a sanitary cross, a double Y- 
branch and double half Y-branch are shown in 
Figs. 63, 64, 65 and 66. 





Pig. 62. 




Fig. 63. 



Fig. 64. 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS «« 

A ventilating cap and a Y-saddle hub are il- 
lustrated in Fig. 67, and lialf Y-saddle hub and 
a T-saddle hub in Fie:. 6S, 




Fig. 65. 




Fig. 66. 



A ventilating branch tapped for iron pipe, an 
inverted Y-branch and a plain ventilating branch 
pipe are shown in Figs. 69, 70 and 71. 



84 



DEAINAGE FITTINGS 





Pig. 67. 





Fig. 





Fig. 69. 



Fig. 70. 



SSiS5^Bi 



iiiiiiiiinirtn-tii 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



85 



A T-brancli, a sanitary T-branch and a Y- 
branch with trap-screw are shown in Figs. 72, 
73 and 74. 





Fig. 71. 



Fig. 72, 





Fig. 73. 



Fig. 74. 



86 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



Traps. A running trap with hand-hole and 
cover, and one with two hub-vents are illus- 
trated in Figs. 75 and 76. 




Fig. 75. 




Fig. 76. 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



87 



A full S-trap, a three-quarter S-trap and a 

half S-trap, are illustrated in Figs. 77, 78 and 79. 

An S-trap, a three-quarter S-trap and a half 




Fig. 77. 





Fig. 78. 



Fig. 79. 



88 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



S-trap, all with hand-liole and cover, are shown 
in Figs. 80, 81 and 82. 




Fig. 80. 




Fig. 81. 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



89 



A full S-trap, a three-quarter S-trap and a half 
S-trap all with top vent are shown in Figs. 83, 

84 and 85. 




Pig. 82o 




Fig. 83. 



90 



DEAINAGE FITTINGS 



A plain running trap and a running trap with 
hub- vent are illustrated in Figs. 86 and 87. 
Lead Traps. Traps with full S, three-quarter 




Fig. 84. 




Fig. 85. 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



d\ 



S, half S or P and running bends are shown 
in Fig. 88, both plain and vented. 




Fig. 86. 




Fig. 87. 



n 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



CO 

H 

ti 
o 




J 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



9a 




94 



DRAINAGE FITTING^o 



Extra long plain and vented S-traps are also 
shown in Fig. 89. 




Fig 92. 



Fig. 93. 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



95 



Hopper Traps. A high pattern S-trap for lead 
pipe connections is shown in Fig. 90, and a high 
pattern three-qnarter and half S-trap for iron 
pipe connections in Figs. 91 and 92. 




Fig. 94. 



Pig. 95. 




Fig. 96. 



96 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



A plain three-quarter S high pattern hopper 
trap, a three-quarter S high pattern liopper trap 
with hub-vent and three-quarter S high pattern 




Pig. 97. 




Pig. 98. 



hopper trap with hand hole and cover, are 
shown in Figs. 93, 94 and 95. 
A high pattern plain S-trap, a high pattern S- 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



97 



trap with Imb-vent and a liigii pattern S-trap 
with hand hole and cover, all for lead pipe con- 
nections, are shown in Figs. 96, 97 and 98. 

The same style of S-traps only for iron pipe 
connections are shown in Figs. 99, 100 and 101, 




Fig. 99. 




Fig- 100. 



98 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 




Fig. 101. 




Pig. 102. 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



99 



A half S-trap plain, a half S-trap with hub- 
vent and a half S-trap with hand hole and cover 
are shown in Figs. 102, 103 and 104. 

Sewer gas and back water traps are shown iu 
Fig. 105. They have hand holes and covers and 




Fig. 103. 




Fig. 104. 



100 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



swing check valves to prevent any back flow of 
water. 




Fig. 106. 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



101 



Brass trap caps with straight and bent coup- 
lings are shown in Figs. 106 and 107. 

Cleanouts. Cleanouts with hand-hole and 
swivel cover, with hand-hole and bolted cover 




Fig. 107, 




Fig. 108. 



102 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



and with brass trap-screw are shown in Figs. 
108, 109 and 110. 




Pig. 109. 




Fig. 110. 




Fig. 111. 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



103 



Cesspools. A hydrant cesspool for use with 
cellar or outdoor hydrants is shown in Fig. 111. 
A stable cesspool with bell-trap and grating is 




Fig. 112. 




Pig. 113. 



104 



DRAINAGE FITTINGS 



illustrated in Fig. 112, while Fig. 113 shows a 
slop sink with bell-trap and strainer. A cellar 
cesspool with bell-trap and grating of rectangu- 
lar shape is shown in Fig. 114, while one of cir- 
cular shape is illustrated in Fig. 115. 




Fig. 114. 




Fig. 115. 



^.•- 




FIG. 116. BATHROOM. 



SANITARY PLUMBING. 

The Bathroom. There are good reasons why 
a bathroom should be finished in the best man- 
ner in preference to any other room in the house. 
As a rule, the bathroom is more used than any 
other room in the house except the kitchen. It 
requires the best material to stand such con- 
stant use, and it is always economy to have the 
best material for purposes where hard usage or 
work is to be performed. Without a good fin- 
ish, with the proper materials for this purpose, 
the bathroom cannot be kept in a sanitary con- 
dition. From the sanitary condition of the bath- 
room the sanitaiy condition of the entire house 
may be judged. Any person who pays atten- 
tion to the sanitary condition of a house, can 
also tell the nature of the people who occupy it. 
Where the bathroom is neglected, scarcely any 
other part of the house will be in a |)roper sani- 
tary condition. 

A bathroom should be well lighted with win- 
dows, so that the sunlight may come in. It 
should be heated to a much higher temperature 
than any other room in the house, and should be 
thoroughly ventilated. The walls, doors, and 
casings should be of such material that they will 

105 



106 SANITARY PLUMBING 

be proof against water and steam. The floors 
should never be covered with carpet, as it is a 
very unsanitary thing in any bathroom. Hard 
wood makes a good floor for a bathroom. 

The bathroom of the modern house is often 
the most expensive room in the house, as today 
people who have both taste and means are spend- 
ing large sums of money in securing the most 
sanitary fixtures for the bathroom and the high- 
est degree of art in everything pertaining tO' 
the bathroom. Fig. 116 shows a, bathroom in 
which all the fixtures are open work, a, roll- 
rimmed porcelain lined bathtub with carved 
brass feet, and also screen shower attachment, 
a sitz bath of the same material and finish as 
the bathtub, a syphon closet with low down flush 
tank, a washbowl with nickel-plated legs and 
brackets as supports, also nickel-plated supply 
and waste fixtures. 

Bathtubs. In Fig. 117 is shown a porcelain 
roll rim bathtub. This is a sanitary article in 
every manner, as it requires no woodwork about 
it, and as this bathtub is made entirely of one 
piece, there is no chance for dirt to lodge in any 
part of it. This bathtub will last a life-time; 
once properly set there will be no further ex- 
pense for repairs. The porcelain bathtub is 
not without some fault or disadvantage; it is 
very heavy to handle. It is no easy matter to 
carry a bathtub of this kind up one or two 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



107 




108 SANITARY PLUMBING 

flights of stairs and land it safely to where it is 
to be set. It requires the greatest care, in hand- 
ling. In nsing the porcelain bathtub it has an- 
other bad point in being very cold to the touch 
until it has become entirely warm from the hot 
water. 

What is styled a corner porcelain bathtub is 
illustrated in Fig. 118, the back and end of the 
tub axe to be built into the wall, and the base sets 
into the floor. It is fitted with nickel-plated 
combination bell supply and waste fittings, which 
are connected directly to the bathtub itself. 

Three styles of porcelain enameled bathtubs 
are shown in Figs. 119, 120 and 121, the supply 
and waste are connected directly to the bathtubs 
shown in Figs. 119 and 120, while the bathtub 
shown in Fig. 121 has only the waste and over- 
flow connections on the tub. 

A solid porcelain roll rim sitz bath is illus- 
trated in Fig. 122. It is fitted with nickel-plated 
combination bell supply and waste fittings. 

A porcelain enameled footbath is shown in 
Fig. 123, it is also fitted with nickel-plated com- 
bination bell supply and waste fittings. 

Fig. 124 illustrates a combination spray and 
shower bath with rubber curtain and porcelain 
enameled roll rim receptor. 

The proper sanitary plumbing connections for 
a bathtub are shown in Fig. 125. The cast iron 
soil pipe is 4 inches in diameter, the main air 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



109 







110 



SANITARY PLUMBING 




SANITARY PLUMBING 



11^ 




112: 



SANITARY PLUMBING 




SANITARY PLUMBING 



113 



pipe 2 inches, and tlie air-vent pipe on the con- 
nection leading from the trap IV^ inches; the 
waste and overflow from the tnb are also l^/i> 
inches in diameter. 

Water Closets. The washout closet is, per- 
haps, the best sanitary water closet, and they 




Pig. 122. 



are made by nearly all manufacturers of sani- 
tary fixtures. This closet is made with the bowl 
and trap combined in one single piece. The 
washout closet would be almost perfect if it 
were set up and connected as intended to be, 
and with a good local vent connected. The local 



114 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



vent is tlie best possible thing that could be 
attached to a water closet, but, like all other 
arrangements, it must be made in such a way so 
that it will operate at all times and during every 
condition of the atmosphere. The local vent is 




coiunected to the bowl of the closet for the 
purpose of taking away the air from the bowl 
of the closet in the room where it may be lo 
cated, so that no foul odors while being used 
will pass from the closet to the room. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



llo 




Fig. 124. 



116 



SANITARY PLUMBING 




tr 



SANITARY PLUMBING 117 

To make the local vent work satisfactorily at 
all times it will be necessary to arrange the pipes 
so that there would always be a suction in the 
pipe drawing from the point which is connected 
with the water closet bowl. This pipe can never 
be connected with the main ventilating shaft of 
the soil pipe, but must escape from the house 
by some other channel. In order to cause this 
local current of air to pass up and out of the 
house from the water closet bowl, it will be 
necessary to provide some artificial heat for this 
purpose. And where it is possible to connect 
to a chimney flue that is always warm when the 
house is occupied, the desired result may be had 
without any additional expense. 

The washout closet is far from being an ideal 
sanitary fixture. It is an improvement over the 
hopper style of closet, ^^et its principle is not 
correct because it does not wash out. The ob- 
jection to the washout closet is, that its bowl 
becomes filthy in a short time, and without hav- 
ing attached to it a local vent the bad odors 
from the bowl become unbearable. In the bowl 
of the washout closet there is too much dry sur- 
face, and the soil clings to it and cannot be 
washed off with the flow of water as it falls from 
the tank. The appearance of the inside of this 
closet is also very bad, especially the style of 
washout with the back outlet as shown in Fig. 
126. 



118 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



Fig. 127 shows a wasliout closet with front 
outlet. 

A short oval flushing" rim hopper water closet, 
with trap and air vent on the top of syphon is 
shown in Fig. 128. 

Two styles of seat operated water closets are 
shown in Figs. 129 and 130, one with long hop- 




i 



I 



Fig. 126. 

per without trap and the other with short hop- 
per and trap. The seat is normally kept open 
by the weight shown to the right, when de- 
pressed by the act of a person sitting upon the 
closet, the small arm or lever attached to the 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



119 




Fig. 128. 



120 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



seat comes into contact with the plunger valve, 
causing the water to flow as long as the seat is 
down. 
A syphon jet water closet with low down tank 




i 



Fig. 129, 



is shown in Fig. 131. It is necessary with this 
style of tank to increase the diameter of the 
flush pipe in order to induce syphonage in the 
closet. With this increased opening a large quan- 



i 



SANITARY PLUMBING 121 

tity of water is thrown into the closet, which is 
sufficient to make the syphon operate. 

A prison water closet with short hopper and 
trap to wall connection is shown in Fig. 132. A 




Fig. 130. 



self-closing faucet is connected to the flushing 
rim. 
A syphon jet closet set up complete with hard- 



122 



SANITARY PLUMBING 




Fig. 131. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



123 



wood, copper-lined syphon tank and concealed 
water supply pipe is shown in Fig. 133. 

Water closet seats with legs and with or 
without lid are shown in Figs. 134 and 135. 

The proper sanitary plumbing connections for 
a washout water closet are shown in Fig. 136. 




Fig. 132. 



The cast iron soil pipe and the lead elbow 
which connects the trap of the closet with the 
soil pipe are both 4 inches inside diameter while 
the air-vent from the lead elbow and the main 



124 



SANITARY PLUMBING 




Fig. 133. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 125 




Fig, 135. 



126 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



air pipe are 2 inches inside diameter. The air- 
vent pipe is of lead and the main air pipe of 
cast iron. 
Urinals. A flat back porcelain urinal is illus- 




Fig. 136. 



i 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



12'! 



trated in Fig. 137, and corner porcelain urinals 
in, Figs. 138 and 139. These are adapted for use 
in hotels and office buildings. 




Fig. 138. 



128 SANITARY PLUMBING 

Individual stall urinals are shown in Figs. 140 
and 141. Tlie one shown in Fig. 140 has a plain 
stall with floor trough and spray pipe, while the 
one shown in Fig. 141 has urinal bowls or hop- 
pers attached to the back wall. A complete 
toilet room containing closets, urinals and wash- 
bowls is shown in Fig. 142. This represents the 
interior of a toilet room in a hotel or office build- 
ing. 




Fig. 139. 

Washbowls. A job which requires experience 
and good judgment is the setting of porcelain 
washbowls to marble slabs. Although it may 
look like an easy job, no one can do this work 
well unless having had considerable experience. 
In setting washbowls to marble slabs there are 
some things to be considered, and to accomplish 
these things in a satisfactory manner there must 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



129 



be some calculations made. To have a wash- 
bowl properly fitted to a marble slab it is neces- 
sary to grind the flange of the bowl so that it 




Fig. 140. 



will lay level on the slab. This has to be done 
by rubbing the upper surface of the flange of the 



130 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



bowl on tlie marble, using sand and water on 
the marble, until the top edge of the bowl is 
perfectly flat and level. This grinding action 




Fig. 141. 



also takes off the glazed surface and allows the 
plaster-of-Paris to take hold of the procelain 



SANITAEY PLUMBING 



131 




132 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



and make a perfect joint. The bowl must be set 
perfectly even all around with the hole in the 
slab. The less plaster used in setting bowls the 
better. It is a poor job that has to be tilled up 
with a large amount of plaster. To get the posi- 
tion of the holes for the bowl clamps, it will be 
necessary to mark on the back of the slab the 
exact position of the edge of the bowl, then 




space off the distance and drill the slab for at 
least four clgmps. In drilling the slab for the 
clamp holes the polished surface of the slab must 
rest on the floor, and in order not to scratch or 
injure it the slab should have under it a bed of 
some soft and clean material. The clamps should 
be well calked into the slab with melted lead, 
and made so that they will not shake nor pull 
out. 
Independent bowls for attaching to marble 



SANITARY PLUMBING 133 

slabs are shown in Figs. 143 and 144. Tliey are 
provided with brass i^lugs and coupling and 
rubber stopper for the waste. 

A roll-edge washbowl with removable strainer 
at the overflow, nickel-plated plug and coupling 
and rubber stopper, and bronzed brackets is 
shown in Fig. 145. 

A half-circle roll edge washbowl with high 




Fig. 144. 

back and apron, cast in one piece, is shown in 
Fig. 146. 

Fig. 147 shows a roll-edge oval washbowl with 
overflow with removable strainer, bronzed brack- 
ets, nickel-plated plug and coupling and rubber 
stopper. 

A roll-edge corner washbowl with oval bowl, 
removable nickel-plated strainer, nickel-plated 
plug and coupling and rubber stopper is shown 
in Fig. 148. 



134 



SANITARY PLUMBING 




Fig. 145. 




SANITARY PLUMBING 



135 




Fig. 148o 



136 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



A roll-edge slab and bowl with ideal waste is 
shown in Fig. 149. It has a round bowl and 



high back. 



A vertical cross section of the above bowl 
showing the ideal waste is given in Fig. 150. 
Tlie proper sanitary plumbing connections 




Fig. 149. 

for a washbowl are shown in Fig. 151. The 
cast iron soil pipe is 4 inches in diameter. The 
waste pipe from the bowl and the air-vent pipe 
from the top of the syphon are 1% inches and 
the main air pipe 2 inches in diameter. 
Drinking Fountains. A solid porcelain double 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



137 



roll edge drinking fountain with back and bowl 
in one piece is shown in Fig. 152. It has a self- 
closing faucet and nickel-plated drip-cup with 
strainer. A one-piece solid porcelain drinking 
fountain with roll-edge bowl is shown in Fig. 




Fig. 150. 

153. It has a self-closing faucet and nickel- 
plated half S-trap. 

A marble drinking fountain is shown in Fig. 

154, which has a counter sunk slab and high 
back, nickel-plated Fuller pantry cock, drip-cock 
with shield, nickel-plated supply pipe, and trap 
with vent and waste to wall. 



138 SANITARY PLUMBING 




Fig. 151. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



139 



A drinking fountain with marble slab, back 
and side-pieces, nickel-plated Fuller pantry 
cock, drip cup with shield and nickel-plated 
brackets is shown in Fig. 155. 

Sinks. The enameled iron sink is a great ad- 
vancement in sanitary improvements. When 




Fig. 152. 

made properly and used for light work it is all 
that could be desired, because it is coated with 
a material which wears well, and is also proof 
against the action of gases or acids. It has a 
smooth finish and is easily kept clean, but it is 
not suitable for heavy or rough work. In the 



140 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



larger sinks this enameled coating cracks off 
easily when heavy utensils are i)laced in it, 
which causes the sink to bend, and the enamel, 




Fig. 153, 



having very little elasticity, must naturally 
crack. It sometimes cracks by the uneven or 
sudden expansion and contraction of the iron, 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



141 



and as soon as the coating is partly cracked off 
the sink becomes sanitarily bad. 

A roll rim enameled iron sink is shown in Fig. 
156. It has a high back, concealed air cham- 



^xuhj 




Fig. 154. 



bers and nickel-plated faucets. A comer enam- 
eled iron sink with roll rim, high back, concealed 
air chambers and nickel-plated faucets is shown 



142 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



in Fig. 157. Instead of having brackets for 
support, it is carried by the walls and one leg. 
A plain enameled iron sink is shown in Fig. 
158. 




Fig. 155. 

A roll rim drawn steel sink with high back 
is illustrated in Fig. 159. 

Grease Trap. Grease from the kitchen sink 
not only stops up the sink waste pipe, but it 
will often stop up the main sewer. When a 
pipe becomes choked with grease it cannot bo 



SANITAEY PLUMBING 



143 



forced out by x^'essure, or the use of potash or 
lye for the purpose of dissolviug it. The only 
remedy in such a case is to cut the pipe and 
take out the grease. This is very expensive, 
and costs a great deal more than a grease trap 




Fig. 156. 



that could have been placed on the sink when 
new, and would have prevented such trouble. 
Fig. 160 shows a device made specially for kitch- 



144 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



on sinks in hotels and restaurants to prevent 
<^rease from getting into the waste pipes. It 
traps the pipe against air or sewer gas coming 
into the house, and is called a grease trap. 
In places where the grease trap is used it is a 




Fig. 157. 



source of revenue as well as a prevention against 
the stopping of pipes by saving the grease, which 
is caught in the trap, and selling it for soft soap. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



145 




146 



SANITARY PLUMBING 




Fig. 159. 




Fig. 160. 



SANITARY PLUMBING 147 

Laundry Tubs. Stoneware makes the best 
kind of laundry tub from every point of view, 
and tliey are almost as cheap as enameled iron 
tubs. The stoneware is non-absorbent. It is 
very smooth, and will not crack by the varia- 
tions of heat and cold. This style of laundry 
tub should be set on a solid foundation of either 
brick piers or good strong cast iron legs; there 
should be no woodwork around it, and even a 
wooden cover is very bad on a laundry tub. Some 
persons cover over the laundry tub for the pur- 
jjose of making it answer as an ironing board, 
but it is not intended for this purpose. To close 
up the top of the laundry tubs prevents the 
air from circulating through them, and what lit- 
tle particles of soap or other matter that re- 
main even after cleaning the tubs soon form into 
a gas which makes a very unpleasant smell when 
the cover is raised. 

A stoneware laundry tub with metal rim, brass 
plugs, strainers, overflow and waste connections 
is shown in Fig. 161. 

A somewhat similar stoneware laundry tub is 
shown in Fig. 162, only without the metal rim 
on the edges of the tub. It has a high back and 
the faucets are above the level of the tub proper. 

The proper sanitary plumbing connections for 
a laundry tub are shown in Fig. 163. The waste 
pipes from the tubs and the connection from the 
trap to the main waste are 1% inches diameter; 



148 



SANITAKY PLUMBING 




FiS'. 1^. 



I 



SANITARY PLUMBING 



149 



the air-vent pipe from the outlet of the trap is 
also V/2 inches. The main waste and main air 
pipes are 2 inches in diameter. The waste pipes 
from the tubs, the connection from the trap to 




Fig. 163. 



the main waste and the air-vent pipe are of lead. 
The main air and the main waste pipes are of 
cast iron. 



BATHROOM AND KITCHEN FITTINGS. 

Washbowl Traps. A nickel-plated brass wash- 
bowl floor-trap without vent is shown in Fig. 
164, and a similar washbowl floor-trap with wall- 
vent in Fig. 165. 

A nickel-plated brass washbowl wall trap, 
with or without the coupling plug and stopper is 
shown in Figs. 166 and 167. 

A nickel-plated brass washbowl floor trap with 
wall-vent is shown in Fig. 168. 

Washbowl Plugs. Washbowl plugs with thim- 
ble, coupling and rubber stoppers are shown in 
Figs. 169 and 170. 

A washbowl plug with thimble, coupling and 
brass stopper is shown in Fig. 171. 

Laundry or Bathtub Plugs. A tub plug with 
flange drilled for countersunk screws or bolts is 
shown in Fig. 172 and the rubber stopper for the 
same in Fig. 173. 

Another form of tub plug is shown in Fig. 174. 
This style of plug is to be either cemented or 
soldered in place. A tub plug with extra wide 
flange drilled for countersunk bolts and with 
brass stopper is illustrated in Fig. 175. 

Sink Strainers. A sink strainer with flange 
drilled with holes for countersunk bolts is shown 

150 



BATHROOM FITTINGS 



151 




Fls. 164. 



152 



BATHROOM FITTINGS 




Fig. 165. 



BATHROOM FITTINGS 



153 



in Fig. 176, and a sink-strainer with lock-nut 
and coupling in Fig. 177; plug and open strain- 
ers are shown in Figs. 178 and 179. 
Bathtub Fittings. Figures 180 and 181 illus- 




Fig. 166. 



trate two forms of compression combination 
bath-cocks. The one shown in Fig. 180 has the 
handles horizontal and the combination fitting in 
sight^ while the fitting shown in Fig. 181 has 



154 



BATHROOM FITTINGS 



only the cock-liandles and the supply nozzle ex- 
posed. 

Urinal Fittings. A compression urinal cock 
with union and adjustable flanges is shown in 
Fig, 182. and a self-closing urinal cock with 




Fig. 167. 

flanges and thimble for soldering in Fig. 183. 

A urinal inlet connection with union and ad- 
justable flange is shown in Fig. 184, and a urinal 
outlet connection of similar construction in Fig. 
185. 

A nickel-plated brass urinal trap with union 
and adjustable flanges is illustrated in Fig. 186. 



BATHROOM FITTINGS 



155 




Fig. 168. 



156 BATHROOM FITTINGS 

Faucets. A plain bibb compression faucet for 
lead pipe, with flange and thimble is shown in 
Fig. 187, and a, hose-bibb compression faucet 
with flange and thimble in Fig. 188. 

A plain-bibb compression faucet with shouldei 
for iron pipe is shown in Fig. 189, and a hose 




Fig. 169. 

bibb compression faucet with shoulder for iror 
pipe in Fig. 190. 

Fig. 191 shows a plain bibb compression faucet 
with flange and inside thread for iron pipe and 
Fig. 192 a hose-bibb compression faucet with 
flange and inside thread for iron pipe. 

A plain bibb L-handle ground faucet with 



BATHROOM FITTINGS 



157 





Fig. 170. 



Pig. 171. 





Pig. 172. 



Pig. 173. 



158 



BATHROOM FITTINGS 




Fig. 177. 



BATHROOM FITTINGS 



159 




Fig. 178. 




Pig. 179. 




Fig. 180. 



160 



BATHHOOM FITTINGS 




Fig. 1P2. 



BATHROOM FITTINGS 



161 




Fig. 183. 



162 BATHKUOM FITTINGS 




Fig. 184. 




Fig. 185. 



i 



BATHROOM FITTINGS 



163 




Fig. 186. 




Fig. 187. 



164 



BATHKOOM FITTINGS 




Fig. ^188. 




Fig. 189. 



Fig. 190. 



BATHROOM FITTINGS 



165 



slioulder for iron pipe is illustrated in Fig. 193, 
and a liose-bibb L-liandle ground faucet with 
shoulder for iron pipe in Fig. 194. 





Fig. 191. 



Fig. 192. 




Fig. 193. 



A plain bibb L-handle ground faucet for lead 
pipe is shown in Fig. 195, and a hose-bibb L- 
handle ground faucet for lead pipe in Fig. 196. 



166 



BATHROOM FITTINGS 




Fig. 194. 




Fig. 196. 



' BATHROOM FITTINGS 167 

Self-closing Faucet. Self-closing faucets are 
fitted witli either a torsion or a compression 
form of spring, which always holds the valve 
on its seat, except when in use, and then it must 
be held up by the hand which acts against the 
spring through a T or L-handled lever, and when 
released the spring by its own pressure closes 
the valve against the flow of the water. The ad- 
vantages of a self-closing faucet are to prevent 
the overflowing of washbowls, bathtubs, sinks 
and other fixtures. The water cannot be left 
running when the self-closing style is used, as 
when they are released by the hand, the pressure 
of the spring immediately closes the valve and 
shuts off the water. One style of self-closing bibb 
cock is showiL in Fig. 197. The details of con- 
struction are very clearly shown in the drawing. 
The valve has a square thread of very quick 
pitch upon its stem, which is surrounded by a 
torsion spring, one end of which is attached to 
the head of the valve and the other to the under 
side of the threaded cap or cover of the faucet. 
Upon turning the valve by means of the T-handle 
on its outer and upper end the valve is raised 
from its seat by the action of the screw. At the 
same time the spring is compressed, upon re- 
leasing the handle the spring brings the valve 
back upon its seat. 

Bibb and Stop-Cocks. A Fuller plain bibb 
cock with shoulder for iron pipe is shown in Fig. 



168 



BATHROOM FITTINGS 



198, and a Fuller hose-bibb cock with shoulder 
for iron pipe is shown in Fig. 199. 




Fig. 197. 



Fig. 200 illustrates a Ftiller plain bibb cock 
with flange and iron pipe thread, and Fig. 201 
a Fuller hose-bibb with flange and iron pipe 
thread. 

A Fuller plain bibb cock with flange and in- 
side thread for iron pipe is shown in Fig. 202, 



BATHKOOM FITTINGS 



169 



and a Fuller hose-bibb with flange and inside 
thread for iron pipe in Fig. 203. 




Pig. 198. 



Fig. 199. 




Fig. 202. 



Fig. 203. 



170 



BATHROOM FITTINGS 



Different styles of Fuller basin cocks are 
shown in Figs. 204, 205, 206 and 207. Self-clo-s- 




Fig. 205. 



BATHROOM FITTINGS 



171 




Fig. 206. 




Fig. 207. 



172 



BATHROOM FITTINGS 



ing basin cocks are shown in Figs. 208 and 209, 
the one shown in Fig. 208 is to be connected to 
the slab and the one in Fig. 209 to the back of 
the wash basin. 
An L-handle stop-cock for lead pipe is shown 




Fig. 209. 



BATHROOM FITTINGS 



173 



in Fig. 210, and an L-handle stop-cock for lead 
pipe with check and waste in Fig. 211. 

A T-handle straight-way stop-cock for lead 
pipe is shown in Fig. 212, and also an L-handle 




Fig. 212. 



174 



BATHROOM FITTINGS 



straight-way stop-cock for lead pipe with check 
and waste in Fig. 213. 

A T-handle round-way stop-cock for iron pipe 
is shown in Fig. 214, and also a T-handle round- 
way stop-cock with check and waste. 




Fig. 214. 



An L-handle straight-way stop-cock for iron 
pipe is shown in Fig. 215, and also an L-handle 
straight- way cock with check and waste for iron 
pipe. 

An Ij-handle round-way stop-cock for iron pipe 



BATHROOM FITTINGS 



175 



is illustrated in Fig. 216, and also' an L-handle 
round-way stop-cock witli check and waste. 

A semi-finished T-handle stop-cock for iron 
pipe is shown in Fig. 217, also a semi-finished 




Pig. 217. 



176 



BATHROOM FITTINGS 



T-handle stop-coek for iron pipe with check and 
waste. 

A semi-finished L-handle stop-cock for iron 
pipe is shown in Fig. 218, and a semi-finished L- 
handled stop-cock with check and waste in Fig. 
219. 




Fig. 218. 




Fig. 219. 



A T-handle straight-way stop-cock for iron 
pipe is shown in Fig. 220; also a T-handle 
straight-way stop-cock with check and waste. 



BATHROOM FITTINGS 



177 



Boiler and Water-back Fittings. The best pipe 
to use for boiler and ^ater-back connections is 
brass, with fittings of tlie same material having 
threaded joints. A soldered joint should not be 
used in these connections, and where unions are 
to be used they should be ground-joint unions, 
that is, without packing. Lead pipe is too soft 
for this purpose; and further will not stand the 
high temperature which the water in these con- 





Fig. 220. 

nections sometimes attains. Wrought-iron pipe 
will either rust solidly, or be honey-combed and 
cut to pieces by the action of the water in a 
very little while. 

Boiler fittings are shown in Figs. 221 and 222, 
and water-back connections in Figs. 223 and 224. 

Combination Soldering Fittings. For connect- 
ing lead to wrought iron pipe the soldering nip- 
ples shown in Figs. 225 and 226 are very suita- 
able, they have male or female pipe thread on 



178 



BATHROOM FITTINGS 



one end and can be soldered directly to lead 
pipe at tlie other end. 

Combination Lead Pipe Coupling". Many 
methods are in use for coupling lead pipe to 
pipes made of other material such as wrought 





Fig. 221. 



Fig. 222. 





Fig. 223. 



Fig. 224. 





Pig. 225. 





Fig. 226. 



BATHROOxM FITTINGS 



179 



iron or brass, but all these methods have cer- 
tain features which are common to all, an ex- 
ample of such a coupling is shown in Pig. 227. 

The casting A is threaded on the outside and 
provided with a female threaded coupling part 
C. A flanged bushing D is placed over the pipe 




Fig. 227. 



B and inside the shouldered opening of 0. The 
lower portion of the casting is of cone shape to 
tit the inside of the pipe B, so that when the 
coupling C is tightened the lead pipe is expand- 
ed as shown in the drawing and a tight joint 
thereby made. 

Traps. A trap is a vessel which contains 
water, its purpose is to prevent the passage of 



180 BATHROOM FITTINGS 

sewer gas and other foul odors from the sewer 
into the house, or to prevent the entrance 
through the house fixtures of gas and noxious 
odors that may be formed between the main 
trap and the liouse fixtures. The water seal of 
a trap should not be less than 1% to 2 inches. 

The seal of a trap may be broken in different 
ways, viz: by syphonage, evaporation, back 
pressurage and momentum or the action of the 
waste itself as it may pass off with considerable 
force. 

A good trap should have a good seal, it 
should be non-syphonable, self-cleaning and have 
as few comers or places where dirt or refuse 
may collect as possible. 

The S-trap and the drum or cylinder trap are 
two forms most used. 

The back pressure or gas from the sewer will 
saturate the water in a trap with sewer gas, 
therefore all traps should be back-vented from 
the sewer side of the siphon and at the highest 
point of the same. 

Traps should always be counter-vented, prin- 
cipally to prevent syphonage, to ventilate the 
plumbing system and to relieve back pressure. 

Counter-venting. A counter-vent is a pipe by 
means of which a trap is supplied with air, to 
prevent the partial or total syphonage of the 
trap and also ventilate the plumbing system of 
the house. 



BATHROOM FITTINGS 181 

Counter- vents from fixture traps should al- 
ways be carried into the main air-pipe and high- 
er than the top of the fixture or else directly 
through the roof. 

The counter-vent from a water closet should 
always be vented from the highest point of the 
syphon and never from a lower point where the 
flushing action of the closet would throw waste 
matter into the entrance of the counter-vent or 
at any point where the waste would be liable to 
settle in the vent-pipe. 

Calking Joints. A ring of oakum is first forc- 
ed into the joint, and then set with a calking 
tool until hard. After the oakmn is firmly calk- 
ed, an asbestos rope is placed around the top of 
the joint, leaving a small opening at the top 
for pouring the melted lead. The melted lead is 
then poured, and after cooling, firmly set down 
with the calking tool, care being taken to thor- 
oughly calk the inner and outer edges of the 
lead circle. The lead in a 4-inch soil pipe should 
be about 1 inch deep. 



SOLDER. 

The composition and properties of solders are 
a matter of considerable interest to all metal 
workers, but tlie subject is of especial import- 
ance to plumbers, because on the quality and 
purity of solder depend in a large measure the 
reliability and good appearance of their work. 
Nothing is more annoying, nor is there anything 
so productive of bad work, waste of time, and 
consequent irritability and bad temper, as the 
trying to do good work with bad material, par- 
ticularly if that material is wiping or plumbers' 
solder. Until recent years it was invariably the 
practice for plumbers to make their own solders, 
either from the pure lead and tin, or, old joints 
and solders were melted down, and tin added in 
proportion. Of late years it is becoming quite 
unusual for plumbers to know anything about 
solder-making. Plumbers consider it more eco- 
nomical to buy it, already made, from firms who 
make solder-making a branch of their manu- 
facturing trade. Another advantage is, that if 
supplied by a firm of good standing it can gen- 
erally be depended upon for purity and uniform 
quality. 

Good plumbers' solder should consist of two 

182 



SOLDER 183 

parts of lead to one of tin, but the proportions, 
of course, vary according to the quality of the 
constituent parts. Tin, for instance, varies very 
much in quality, and no fluxing or a super- 
abundance of the tin will make good solder if 
this metal is of an inferior kind. It is, there- 
fore, far the most economical in the long run to 
use tin of the very best quality. 

As the exact proportions, as they are gener- 
ally given, depend to a very great extent upon 
the condition of the two metals, it follows that 
the mere mixing of certain quantities of tin and 
lead does not necessarily make a composition 
that will serve the purpose that it is intended 
for, but a plumber with an experienced eye can 
detect at a glance the inferiority and usefulness 
of such solders when required for the execution 
of good work. 

Although it is not absolutely necessary that a 
good solder-maker should be a plumber, it is 
important that he should have a considerable 
knowledge of the appearance of solder in proper 
condition. In the absence of a practical test, 
there are certain indications by which the solder 
may be judged, whether it is good or bad. The 
most common practice is to run out a strip of 
solder on a smooth level stone. As soon as the 
strip is nearly cold, the quality of the solder or 
the proper proportion of tin and lead can be de- 
termined by the appearance of both surfaces. It 



184 SOLDER 

is important, before running the solder out on 
the stone, that it should be at such a heat as 
to allow the solder to run freely. A tempera- 
ture just below red heat is the most suitable for 
this purpose, if the solder is not hot enough, it 
will have a dull white look, whether it is good 
or bad. 

If it is in good condition, it should have a 
clean, silvery appearance, bright spots should 
also form on the surface from an eighth to a 
quarter of an inch in diameter. As a rule, the 
larger the spots the finer is the solder, although 
some kinds of tin will not show large spots, 
however much is used. In such cases they 
should appear more numerous. 

If the strip has a dull, dirty appearance and 
a mottled surface, it is evident the solder is not 
as pure as it should be. It probably contains 
some mineral impurities, which can generally be 
removed by well heating the solder in the pot, 
and stirring into it a quantity of resin and 
tallow. These substances have but very little, 
if any, chemical effects, either upon the solder 
or the foreign matters it may contain, but the 
action that seems to take place is that they 
combine with the lighter mineral matters by 
what may be called adhesive attraction, and 
cause them to rise to the surface, where they can 
be skimmed off. There are some earthy impurities 
that get into the solder, the specific gravities of 



SOLDER 18b 

which are probably much lighter than the solder 
itself, but which will not rise to the surface un- 
til assisted by means of fluxes. It must be re- 
membered that although tin has a specific gravity 
of 7.3 and lead 11.445, it is therefore, necessary 
to well stir the solder while it is being poured 
into the moulds, as the tin will continually rise 
to the top, yet if it were not stirred at all after 
it was once mixed, the lower portion would not 
be wholly deprived of tin, showing that the 
greater specific gravity of the one does not 
wholly displace the other. The same is true of 
certain impurities, which are not removed until 
they are washed out, as it were, by means of 
fluxes such as resin and tallow. 

The greatest enemy to plumbers' solder is 
zinc. If the slightest trace of this metal gets 
into a pot of solder, it is almost a matter of 
impossibility to wipe joints with it, especially 
underhand joints. 

When zinc is present, the strip of solder has a 
dull, crystallized appearance on the surface. The 
tin spots are also very dull and rough, and not 
at all bright and clean. When solder of this 
kind is being used for wiping, the first thing 
noticed is that a thick, dirty dross forms on the 
surface directly after it is skimmed. It is im- 
possible to keep the surface clean for even a 
second. When it is poured on a joint, it sets 
almost instantly, and it matters not at what heat 



186 SOLDER 

it is used. As soon as one attempts to move it 
with the cloth, it breaks to pieces, and falls off 
the joint. 

In the case of branch joints when an iron is 
"used, the solder cools in hard lumps, and breaks 
away like portions of wet sand. There are two 
or three ways of extracting zinc from solder, 
one is to partly fuse it, and when it is nearly 
set to pulverize it until the particles are sep- 
arated as much as possible. The whole is then 
placed in a pot or earthenware vessel and sat- 
urated with hydrochloric acid, commonly called 
muriatic acid. The acid dissolves the zinc and 
produces chloride of zinc; the latter can be 
washed out with clean water and the solder re- 
turned to the pot in a comparatively pure state. 
This method cannot be recommended as a cer- 
tain cure, because of the difficulty there exists 
in dividing the particles to such an extent as to 
expose the whole of the zinc that may be con- 
tained in it, and considering the small amount 
of zinc that is sufficient to poison a pot of solder 
it is doubtful if the acid process is radical 
enough in its action to thoroughly eradicate the 
zinc without repeated applications. 

Sulphur is the best thing to use for this pur- 
pose. 

When a pot of solder has been found to be 
poisoned with zinc, it is heated to just below a 
red heat. Lump sulphur is broken up and gran- 



SOLDER 187 

nlated, it is then screwed up tight in tliree or 
four thicknesses of paper, and in tliis form is 
thrown into the pot and lield below the solder 
with a ladle. As the paper burns the sulphur 
rises through the solder, combines with the zinc, 
and floats on the surface. The solder is well 
stirred so as to thoroughly mix the sulphur with 
the whole of the contents of the pot, the dross 
which is formed by this process is then skimmed 
off with a ladle and thrown away as useless. 

In the case of the sulphur, although it is gen- 
erally called a flux, the action that takes place, 
is altogether ditferent to that of resin and tal- 
low. It may safely be inferred by reference to 
the results of chemical combinations that the 
zinc, having a great affinity for sulphur, as soon 
as it comes in contact, forms sulphide of zinc, 
this is really a substance similar to zinc blende, 
a common form of zinc ore. In this condition, 
the specific gravity being considerably reduced, 
it readily rises to the surface of the solder, 
where it can be skimmed oif with a ladle. 

The question naturally arises— why is it the 
sulphur does not combine with the lead to which 
it also has an affinity, and thus form sulphide of 
lead I If lead is heated only just above its melt- 
ing point and then some sulphur is mixed with 
it, a substance would be formed similar to ga- 
lena, or sulphide of lead. But if the tempera- 
ture is raised several degrees higher the sulphide 



188 SOLDER 

gives up the lead, and either floats to the top 
or passes off in the form of gaseous vapor, chem- 
ically termed sulphurous 'anhydride. There- 
fore, by heating the solder containing zinc to a 
temperature just below redness, it is hot enough 
to prevent the sulphur combining with the lead 
and tin, but not sufficiently heated to cause the 
sulphur to give up the zinc, which fuses at a 
temperature of 773 degrees Fahrenheit, whereas 
lead fuses at 612 degrees Fahrenheit, and in com- 
bination with tin as solder at 441 degrees Fah- 
renlieit. The difference in the melting points 
is in all probability the principal cause of the 
sulphur attracting the zinc and leaving the lead 
and tin comparatively unaffected. 

Another method of extracting the zinc from 
solder is to raise the temperature to a very 
bright red heat, if this is continued long enough 
the zinc vaporizes and passes off in a gaseous 
state. 

The latter is a very wasteful process because 
it cannot be done without a large proportion of 
the tin becoming oxidized. The oxide gathers 
in the form of a powder on the surface, and is 
what is commonly known as putty powder. One 
of the most common means of spoiling solder is 
the last mentioned. 

The flowing of solder, especially that used 
with the copper-bit, depends to a large extent 
upon the fluxes that are used for tinning pur- 



SOLDER 189 

poses. For soldering lead only a very simple 
flux is necessary, namely, a little tallow and 
powdered resin. The same kind of flux is also 
very often used for tinning and soldering brass 
and copper, and there are many plumbers who 
use nothing else but a piece of common tallow 
candle, which seems to answer the purpose very 
well. For soldering iron, zinc, and tin goods, chlor- 
ide of zinc, or what is commonly called killed 
spirit of salt, is generally used, although it is 
not necessary to kill the hydrochloric acid when 
zinc has to be soldered. Soldering fluids and 
preparations have been invented which have, to 
a very large extent, superseded the common 
fluxes. The disadvantage of spirit of salt is ow- 
ing to the tendency it has to produce oxidation 
on iron, and chlorides on zinc, after the solder- 
ing is done. 

It would be interesting to try and find out the 
reason why a combination of metals fuses at 
such a low temperature when compared with the 
fusing points of the component parts of the 
alloys. It is necessary to bear in mind the fact 
that all metals, and indeed all matter, are com- 
posed of minute particles or molecules, and that 
there is nothing existing that is a strictly solid 
uniform mass. It is also acknowledged that 
the molecules of different substances always as- 
sume a distinctive shape, and when metallic 
matter is crystallized, as it is said to be when it 



190 SOLDER 

becomes solid by the action of cold, these par- 
ticles are attracted to each other by a force of 
more or less power according to the nature of 
the metal, whether it is said to be hard or soft. 

Now the force by which these aggregations of 
minute particles are held together is what is 
called cohesive attraction, and the power of this 
force to hold the particles together depends to 
a very great extent upon the particular shape 
which these extremely small particles assume, 
and the amount of surface which they present 
to each other. It is very easy to conceive that 
if a number of bodies have mutual attraction 
for each other, the larger the surface that comes 
in contact the more force is there exerted one 
with the other. If, for instance, the particles 
take the form of spheres like a number of mar- 
bles, the surface in actual contact is compara- 
tively very small indeed, the same would be the 
case if they were very irregular in form. But 
if each particle took the form of a cube, oi 
some other regular body, the attraction would 
be greatly increased, as each of the particles 
approached and fitted into its proper place. It 
is not contended that the molecules are actually 
attracted into absolutely close contact, because, 
as a matter of fact, they are not. In every sub- 
stance, however hard and solid it might appear 
to be, there are certain interstices between the 
particles which are called pores, the capacities 



SOLDER 191 

of whicli vary according to peculiar conforma- 
tion of the particles, and tlie degree of affinity 
wliicli one set of particles may have for others 
in the same mass. It follows then that as a rule 
the hardness or softness of any substance de- 
pends, according to the theory of cohesive at- 
traction, upon the close and compact nature of 
the molecules, and the large or small spaces or 
interstices between them, that is, so far as the 
action of heat is concerned. If it is required to 
make a hard substance soft and pliable, some 
power is necessary to exert a reactionary in- 
fluence upon the attractive force which causes 
the particles to cohere. Now the only powers 
that will effectually produce this result is heat, 
when heat is applied to nearly all metallic sub- 
stances, the first thing it does is to enlarge the 
bulk by the almost irresistible force of expan- 
sion. The effect that heat has on a solid is 
to cause the particles to be thrown farther apart 
from each other by a repulsive force, overcoming 
to a certain extent the force of cohesive attrac- 
tion. This repulsive action continues to increase 
as the temperature is raised, until the attractive 
force has to give way to the force of gravity. 

The result is the particles will no longer co- 
here in a mass, but fall away from each other 
and become in a state of fluid, and if they are 
not kept together in a vessel of some kind d^''^ 
ing their high temperature they will run in any 



192 SOLDER 

direction by the influence of gravity like ordi- 
nary liquids. When a metal is in such a con- 
dition it is said to be melted or fused. There 
are some metals, zinc for instance, the particles 
of which are separated to a much greater ex- 
tent than is the case with fusion only. For if 
the heat is applied so that the temperature is 
raised above fusing point, evaporation takes 
place, and the molecules are driven off in the 
form of vapor. 

When two distinct metals are mixed together, 
such as tin and lead, the cohesive attraction is 
modified to a large extent, because the molecules 
of one have a comparatively small affinity for 
the other. Of course tin has a certain amount of 
affinity for lead, in fact, if there were no affinity 
between the two, solders would be useless on 
lead, because tinning could not be effected if 
such were the case. But what seems certain is= 
when the two metals are alloyed, the molecules 
are not held together by the same attractive force 
that is exerted when a metal is not alloyed, that 
is, the particles of one metal do not, by reason of 
their difference of construction or conformation, 
have the same affinity for each other as they do 
when they are not intermixed with other parti- 
cles of a different nature. 

Consequently, when such combinations of met- 
als are subjected to the action of heat, the par- 
ticles mutually assist each other to separate> and 



SOLDER 193 

gravitate like liquids to a level surface, with a 
much lower degree of temperature than is re- 
quired to obtain the same effect when the metals 
are melted separately. 

Then with regard to wiping solder, it retains 
its fluid and plastic state for a much longer 
time than lead or tin would before they are mix- 
ed, showing that the particles, probably for the 
same reason, do not solidify so quickly as they 
would in a separate state. If they did, joint- 
wiping would, of course, be impossible, for on 
the peculiar power tliat solder has to retain its 
heat, or rather the effects of heat, depends the 
success of the most important parts of plumbing- 
work. An alloy of lead and tin contracts consid- 
erably in cooling, the result of this can be seen 
when a solder pot is placed on the fire. Before 
the bulk of the solder melts, but as soon as that 
part which is near the hottest part of the fire 
begins to fuse^ the molten metal forces its way 
up to the top, between the sides of the mass of 
solder and the sides of the pot, this often con- 
tinues until the top of the unmelted mass is 
covered with a melted layer which has forced its 
way there, showing that when the solder cooled 
it contracted into a smaller space than it occu- 
pied when it was in a fluid state. Consequently, 
when the lower part of the solder is melted first, 
the expansion that takes place forces it of neces- 
sity to the top, because there is not room for the 



194 SOLDER 

increased bulk in the space it was reduced to 
during the process of cooling. But if antimony, 
the fusing point of which is 840 degrees Fahren- 
heit, is added to lead and tin, the result is just 
the reverse, for on cooling this alloy expands. 
The latter alloy is generally used for casting 
types for printing, the proportions of which are 
two of lead, one of antimony, and one of tin, 
although a more expansive alloy is made of 
nine of lead, two of antimony, and one of bis- 
muth. Then with regard to the hardness of 
metals, it is not always that the hardest metals 
require the highest temperature to fuse them. 
Tin, for instance, is much harder than lead, yet 
it fuses at a temperature nearly 200 degrees Fah- 
renheit lower than lead. 



HOW TO MAKE SOLDER. 

Plumber's wiping solder, for use with the 
ladle and the soldering cloth, is made up by 
melting together pure lead and block tin in the 
proportion of 2 pounds of lead to 1 pound of 
tin. Plumber's fine solder is made of about equal 
parts of those two metals. Strip solder— used 
with the copper-bit— is made in the proportion 
of 2 pounds of tin to 3 pounds of lead. Gas- 
fitter's solder may be made in the proportion of 
8 pounds of tin to 9 pounds of lead, tinsmith's 
copper-bit solder is 1 pound of lead to 1 pound 
of tin. The proportion of lead and tin may vary 
within certain limits without apparent effort on 
the solder. 

Plumber's wiping solder, when in a bar, 
should have a clean grey appearance, and not be 
dirty-looking. The ends of the bar should be 
bright, and show several tin spots mottled over 
their surfaces. In use, the solder should work 
smooth, and not granular. Tlie tin should not 
separate from the lead on the lower part of the 
joints. One test for the quality of solder is to 
melt it and then pour on to a cold but dry stone 
about the size of a dollar, and take note of the 
color and size and also the number and sizes 

195 



196 HOW TO MAKE SOLDER 

of the spots that appear, but the only reliable 
test is to make a joint and note the ease with 
which it can be worked. For making joints on 
lead pipes copper-bit solder made in thin strips 
is generally used. This is the kind used also 
for soldering zinc. Some plumbers prefer sol- 
der finer, others coarser than the usual average 
which is given above. 

The usual method of making solder is as fol- 
lows: An iron pot is suspended over a coke fire, 
to which enough broken coke is added to bank 
up all round the pot. Sheet-lead cuttings and 
scraps of clean pipe are put into the pot until it 
is rather more than half full. Preference is 
given to pig-lead over sheet, and to new cuttings 
over pipe, because the lead rolled into sheets is 
generally purer than that used for pipe. Some 
pipe is made of old metals which contain lead, 
tin, antimony, arsenic, and zinc, it is inadvis- 
able to put such material in the solder-pot. The 
effect would be to raise the melting point of 
the solder, and in applying it to the joint to be 
soldered it would in all probability partially 
melt the lead. Moreover, the metals named do 
not alloy perfectly, but partake more of the 
nature of a mixture which partially separates 
when making a joint, some metals, especially 
zinc, show as small bright lumps on the surface. 
Joints made with such solder, which usually is 
called poisoned metal, are difficult to form, and 



HOW TO MAKE SOLDER 197 

tliey usually leak when in water pipes. The ap- 
pearance of such joints is a. dirty grey, instead 
of bright and clean as when pure solder is used. 
From this it is clear that in making solder great 
care must be taken to exclude zinc from the pot. 
Zinc, lead, and tin do not alloy well, lead will 
unite with only 1.6 per cent of zinc, and above 
that proportion the metals are only mixed when 
melted, and on cooling partially separate. 

Sufficient lead having been melted in the pot, 
about % pound of lump sulphur, broken into 
pieces about the size of hickory nuts, is added, 
and the whole well stirred with a ladle, the sul- 
phur unites with zinc and other impurities. The 
resultant sulphides are skimmed off in the form 
of a cake, more sulphur being added so long az 
sulphides continue to form. The bowl of the 
ladle, in the intervals of stirring, should be laid 
on the fire, to burn off any adherent sulphur. 
When sulphide ceases to be formed, a handful 
of resin is thrown into the pot, and the lead 
stirred. When the resin has burned, the lead is 
again skimmed, and a piece of tallow about the 
size of a hen's egg is put into the pot, the lead 
being again stirred and skimmed. In stirring 
the lead it is lifted up and poured back by the 
ladleful, a larger amount of lead being thus 
exposed to the action of the cleaning material. 

Best block tin is now added in the required 
proportion, and after the molten mass has been 



198 HOW TO MAKE SOLDER 

well stirred a little of the mixture should be run 
on to a stone to test its fineness. If it appears 
too coarse more tin is added, if too fine, more 
sheet-lead. Finally, a little resin and tallow 
having been added, the solder is skimmed and is 
then ready for use or for pouring into moulds. 
When plumber ^s solder is heated in an open 
pot, the surface exposed to the air combines with 
oxygen, and on heating to redness, the combina- 
tion takes place more readily. The tin melts 
at a lower temperature than lead, and so its 
specific gravity is lighter, floats when melted, 
and so the solder becomes poorer when too 
highly heated, owing to the tin's oxidation. If 
the dross is melted with a flux, or with pow- 
dered charcoal, which will combine with the 
oxygen, the solder will again become fit for use, 
but it is sometimes necessary to add a little 
more tin. 

Burning the solder must be carefully avoided. 
A pot of solder after it has been red-hot has 
always a quantity of dross or dirt collected on 
the top. This is principally oxide of tin and 
oxide of lead, the tin and lead having united 
with the oxygen in the atmosphere to form ox- 
ides of these metals. Lead being roughly 50 
per cent heavier than tin, the tendency is for 
the tin in the molten mixture to form the upper 
layer of the solder— the part most exposed to 
the action of the atmosphere. When the solder 



HOW TO MAKE SOLDER 199 

becomes red-hot, there is therefore more tin 
burned than lead. Hence the solder becomes too 
coarse, and more tin must be added. Zinc is 
the greatest trouble to the solder pot. GTreat 
care has to be taken to exclude it, or to get it 
out. It may get into the solder from a piece of 
zinc, having been put into the pot by mistake 
for lead, but more commonly brass, which is an 
alloy of copper and zinc, is the source of the 
zinc that poisons the pot, into which brass filings 
find their way whilst brass is being prepared 
for tinning. If the filing is done at the same 
bench as the wiping, splashes of metal may fall 
on the filings, which will adhere, and thus get 
into the pot. Solder that is poisoned by arsenic 
or antimony is beyond the plumber's skill to 
clean, but zinc can be extracted by stirring in 
powdered sulphur when the solder is in a semi- 
molten condition, and then melting the whole, 
when the combined sulphur and zinc will rise 
to the surface, and can be taken of^ in the form 
of a cake, the solder being left in good condition 
for use. 



SOLDERING FLUXES. 

The flux ordinarily used for plumber's wiping 
solder is tallow, generally in the^ form of a 
candle. No other fluxes answer this purpose so 
well, as they all spoil the wiping cloths, but dif- 
ferent kinds of fluxes are required for different 
kinds of work. For a wiped joint, a tallow 
candle is rubbed over the parts. This is often 
used in making copper-bit joints, though for this 
latter purpose many plumbers prefer to use 
black rosin. Muriatic acid is em|)loyed as a flux 
for use when soldering, the acid — which is a 
powerful poison— being used for zinc or galvan- 
ized iron, and the killed acid for other metals, 
such as brass, tinplate, copper, wrought-iron, 
etc. 

After tinning brass with fine solder, the cop- 
per-bit should be wiped quite clean, as the cop- 
per, uniting with some of the zinc in the brass, 
may affect the wiping solder. Some plumbers 
tin brass by holding it over the metal pot and 
pouring the solder on to it. This is bad prac- 
tice, as the surplus solder, and any zinc with 
which it may have combined, fall into the pot. 
In cleaning solder, the sulphur must be used 

200 



SOLDEllING FLUXES 201 

with more care than when cleaning lead, or the 
tin will be burnt out as well as the zinc. 

The method ordinarily adopted by plumbers 
for tinning iron is to file it bright and then coat 
the part with killed acid or chloride of zinc, or 
muriatic acid in which zinc has been dissolved, 
and then dip it into molten plumber's solder. 
Sometimes sal-ammoniac is used for the flux, or 
a mixture of sal-ammoniac and chloride of zinc. 
When wrought-iron pipes have been thus tinned, 
and then soldered joints made^ they have been 
found to come apart after a few years, the pipe 
ends, when pulled from the solder, being found 
to be rusty. Although more difficult to accom- 
plish, iron pipe ends filed and covered with resin, 
and then [ylunged into molten solder, from the 
surface of which all dross has been skimmed, 
and afterwards soldered together, have been 
known to last a considerable time. When tin- 
ning the pipes or making the joints, the solder 
must not be overheated, or failure will result. 



PREPARING WIPED JOINTS. 

One objection that is often raised to wiped 
joints is that they are too expensive, and re- 
quire a large quantity of solder. Another is that 
they take up too much time, and when they are 
made they are said to be ugly, and have been 
described as a ^'ball of solder round a pipe." 
It seems very unfortunate that plumbers' work 
should be judged by its worst specimens, but, 
probably, this course of action is justified by 
the principle that the strength of the chain is 
limited to its weakest link. There is no doubt 
that if joints are carefully prepared and prop- 
erly wiped the above objections would be 
groundless, and that for good substantial work 
there is no other kind of joint that is more 
suitable for the purpose. 

In the process of making wiped joints no part 
is no important as the preparation. A joint 
may be wiped as nicely and as regularly as pos- 
sible, but if the ends are not properly prepared 
and fitted, it will very often happen that the 
joint will leak by sweating, as it is called, the 
solder is generally supposed to be the cause, 
but more often it is the fault of the imperfect 
preparation of the ends of the pipe. We will 

202 



PREPARING WIPED JOINTS 203 

suppose, for instance, an upright joint on an 
inch service pipe. Fig. 229 is a sketch showing 
the way a joint of this kind is usually prepared. 
Very often one end barely enters the other, no 
care is taken to see that the ends fit properly 
together, and any space that may be left be- 
tween the two ends is closed up with a hammer. 
As to shaving inside the socket end, this is 
thought quite unnecessary, if not a fault, for 
some think if the socket end is shaved inside, 
it will induce the solder to run through and 
partly fill up the pipe. There is no doubt it 
would do so if the ends do not fit; but that is 
just the thing that is most important, not only 
as regards the solder getting inside the pipe, but 
on it depends, to a very large extent, the sound- 
ness of the joint. 

The general idea is that if the two ends of a 
pipe are shaved and placed together, and a piece 
of solder stuck round them, tha^ it all that is 
required to make a joint. If the solder is not so 
fine as it ought to be, it is the cause of most of 
the leaky joints, and very often the joints are 
found broken right across the center, more es- 
pecially in the case of joint on hot- water, service, 
and waste pipes. It has been remarked 
that the solder is generally blamed for all the 
failures. It is either too coarse or too cold, or 
else it must have got a piece of zinc in it. Other- 
wise, if the joint is made to brasswork, it is that 



204 PREPARING WIPED JOINTS 

which has poisoned the solder. In short, every- 
thing gets blamed except the right cause. 

It must not be supposed that joint-wiping can 
be taught by books. This can only be accom- 
plished in the workshop or on a plumbing job. 
But as practice is very often greatly assisted by 
precept, probably a few hints on the matter of 
joint- wiping will be helpful to many who have 
not the opportunities to gain a very large or 
varied experience. In preparing a joint similar 
to the one mentioned, after the two ends are 
carefully straightened, the spigot, or what is 
generally called the male end, should be iirst 
rasped square, and then tapered with a fine rasp 
quite half an inch back from the end. A fine 
rasp is mentioned because the rasps that are 
used by many plumbers are far too coarse to 
properly rasp the ends of pipes. Generally the 
very coarse rasps are used, it is difficult to say 
why, except it is that they are cheaper than the 
fine rasps, but if the advantages of a fine rasp 
be taken into account, the extra cost would not 
be considered. 

When preparing the ends of the pipe, great 
care should be taken to avoid the raspings get- 
ting into the pipes, these cause no end of time 
and trouble when they get into valves and other 
fittings, after the pipes are filled with water. 

As a rule, it is the back stroke of the rasp 
that throws the raspings inside the pipe, espe- 



PREPARING WIPED JOINTS 20u 

cially when the pipe is being rasped horizontally, 
or with the end of the pipe pointing upwards. 
If possible, when the ends are being rasped, they 
should either be pointing in a downward direc- 
tion, or else the rasp should not be allowed to 
touch the pipe in its backward stroke. Some 
plumbers place a wad or stopper in the end of 
a pii3e when it is being rasped; this is a very 
good precaution to take, providing it is not for- 
gotten and left in the pipe. After the spigot 
end has been rasped, it should be soiled about 
six inches long, but no farther towards the end 
than an inch from the rasped edge. Sometimes 
the soiling is taken right up to the end, but this 
is not a good plan, because, if it is soiled over 
the rasped edge, the shave-hook does not always 
take the soil out of the rasp marks, a point 
which is most important; and as it is quite un- 
necessary to soil farther than the line of shaving, 
the soil at the end is quite superfluous. Many 
plumbers soil the ends before they rasp them 
with the same object in view, but this is not a 
good plan, because very often in rasping the 
ends, the end of the rasp is likely to scratch the 
soiling, making it necessary to touch up the soil- 
ing again. 

If the soil is good it is an advantage to rub it, 
after it is dry, with a piece of carpet or a hard 
brush, a dry felt will do. This makes the sur- 
face of the soil smooth and more durable, and 



206 PREPARING WIPED JOINTS 

not so likely to flake off when the joint is wiped. 
The best soil is made from vegetable black and 
diluted glue with a little sugar, and finely- 
ground chalk added. The proportion of the in- 
gredients depends to a large extent on their 
quality. Lamp black and size are generally used, 
but if the black is not very good it is very diffi- 
cult to make soil fit for use, it will rub or peel 
off and become a nuisance. Good soil, and a 
properly made soil pot and tool, are indispensa- 
ble to a plumber who wishes to turn out a good 
quality of work. Any makeshift does for a 
soil pot with a great many plumbers. Some 
use an old milk-can or a saucepan. It is much 
better to have a good copper pot, with a handle. 
Most plumbers should be able to make a soil 
pot with a piece of sheet copper, otherwise a 
coppersmith would make one for a small sum. 
Before soiling the end of the pipe, it is always a 
good plan to chalk it well. This will counteract 
the effects of the grease that is nearly always 
found on the surface of new lead pipes. If the 
pipe is very greasy, it is still better to scour 
it well with a piece of card-wire before it is 
chalked and soiled. The scouring is not always 
necessary, but it is always best to carry a piece 
of card-wire in case of need. 

When the end of the pipe has been properly 
soiled, it should be shaved the length required, 
ti^.\t is, about half an inch longer than half the 



PREPARING WIPED JOINTS 207 

length of the joint, thus allowing half an inch 
for socketing into the other end. Grease, or 
''touch/' as it is called by plumbers, should 
immediately be rubbed over the shaved part to 
prevent oxidation. The socket end of the pipe 
should now be rasped square and opened with a 
long tapered turnpin— a short stumpy tumpin 
is not a proper tool for this purpose, although 
many of this kind are used. After rasping the 
edge of the pipe, the rasped part should be par- 
allel with the side of the pipe, as shown at Fig. 
228. It is not at all necessary for the edge of 
the socket end to project, nor to reduce the bore 
of the pipe in the joint; but if the ends are pre- 
pared, as shown at Figs. 229 and 230, it would 
be necessary to open the socket end an extra- 
ordinary width to get the same depth of socket, 
and then a much larger quantity of solder would 
be required to cover the edge, which would make 
the shape of the joint look ugly, and not make 
such a reliable joint either. 

When the socket end is properly fitted, it 
should be soiled and shaved half the length of 
the intended joint. The inside of the socket 
should also be shaved about half an inch down 
and touched. 

If the solder is used at a proper heat and 
splashed on quickly, so as to well sweat the sol- 
der in between the two surfaces where the ends 
are socketed, the joint is made, so far as the 



208 



PEEPARING WIPED JOINTS 



soundness is concerned, independent of the wip- 
ing or the form and shape of the solder when 
it is finished. In fact, if a joint is prepared in 
a proper manner, it would be sound in most in- 
stances if the solder was wiped bare to the 
edge of the socket end. Of course, it would not 




n: 






1 

1 

V 


1 






s 

s, 



Fig. 228. 



Fig. 229. 



Fig. 230. 



l3e advisable to do this, but still, a joint should 
and could be quite independent of the very large 
quantity of solder that is frequently used. But 
when a large amount of solder is seen on a joint, 
it can generally be taken for granted that the 
plumber that made it, when he prepared the 



PREPARING WIPED JOINTS 209 

ends, took great pains to close up the edge of 
the socket end to the spigot end so that it fitted 
tight, so tight was this edge, that it prevented 
the slightest particle of solder getting in be- 
tween. The consequence very often is, that if 
the plumber is not quick at wiping the joint, and 
keeps the solder moving until it is nearly cold, 
or at least cold enough to set, the whole of the 
solder on the joint will be in a state of porous- 
ness, or, in other words, instead of the solder 
cooling into a compact mass, the contin- 
ual moving of it by the act of wiping 
causes the particles, as they become crystal- 
lized by cooling, to be disturbed and partially 
disintegrated. The result is, that under a mod- 
erate pressure the water will percolate through 
the joint and cause what is generally termed 
*' sweating. ' ' Very often it is rather more than 
sweating, it can more correctly be compared to 
water running through a sieve. Under some con- 
ditions it is not a very easy matter to prevent 
this sweating, especially if the solder is very 
coarse, or is poisoned by zinc or other delete- 
rious matters. The great advantage of leaving 
the socket end open is, that if the solder is used 
at a good heat, as it always should be when it 
is splashed on, it runs into the socket at such a 
heat that, when it cools, it sets much firmer than 
that part of the solder which has been disturbed 
by the forming of the joint. 



JOINT-WIPING. 

Joint-wiping forms an important branch in the 
art of plumbing. It is a part of the work which 
requires more care, skill and practice than any 
of the other branches, and on it depends the 
success or failure of some of the most particu- 
lar jobs in sanitary plumbing. Many serious 
cases of disease have been traced to bad joint- 
wiping. It is not expected that a joint can un- 
der all conditions, be as perfectly symmetrical 
and well proportioned as if it had been turned 
in a lathe. The best workmen have to leave 
joints that they would be ashamed of, as far as 
the appearance is concerned, if they were made 
on the bench or in some convenient place. There 
are too many who seem to think that sound work 
is good work, and therefore never try to make 
their work look as creditable as it should. The 
ditferent styles of joint-wiping are so numerous, 
that one could go to any length describing the 
many eccentricities and peculiarities that are 
displayed in this particular branch of the trade. 
Of course every one has his own peculiar ideas 
in most matters, and no person does a thing ex- 
actly like another. 

After a helper has been at the trade for a 
210 



JOINT-WIPING 211 

short time, his one great ambition is to wipe a 
joint. He seems to think that if he can only 
manage to get a small portion of solder to ad- 
here to a piece of pipe, and then so manipulate 
it as to induce it to take the form of an egg or 
a turnip, as the ease may be, he has done some- 
thing to be proud of, and soon begins to think 
he ought to be a full-blown plumber. Another 
question with regard to joints is the proper 
lengths to make them. Some like long joints, 
others prefer short ones. The advocates of long- 
joints say that short joints are ugly, and are not 
proportionate. They are often compared to tur- 
nips, and other things not quite so regular in 
shape. Those who are in favor of short joints 
say the long ones are not so sound, that they 
will not stand a gTeat pressure, and are liable 
to sweat. It is ridiculous to make joints of 
enormous lengths, when a joint made more in 
proportion to the diameter of the pipe would not 
only be much stronger, but would look far neat- 
er, and generally require less solder. Then there 
is the question of wiping-cloths. A great many 
plumbers like a very thick cloth for wiping 
joints, but, on the other hand, as many more 
say they cannot wipe joints with thick cloths. 
Many plumbers who are used to thick cloths 
and can wipe joints as easily as possible, are 
quite beaten if they try to use thin cloths. The 
difference in the thickness of cloths is very great 



212 JOINT-WIPING 

in some cases. Very thin cloths are not suitable 
for making joints a nice shape. When a plumb- 
er gets used to a reasonably thick cloth he can 
make joints far better and easier than if he used 
thin ones. Generally, plumbers who use thin 
cloths make joints very short and lumpy, and 
bare at the ends, so that the shaving is shown 
about an eighth to three-eights from the ends. 
But when thicker cloths are used it is much 
easier to make joints more like the proper shape. 
This is very important in all joint- wiping, be- 
cause wherever the shaving is left bare, the pipe 
is weaker here than any other part, whereas, 
if a joint is properly made, this part of it should 
be the strongest. In a large number of in- 
stances, when a pipe is subject to much expan- 
sion and contraction, it will break at this weak 
point very soon after it is fixed. It would be 
difficult to say generally what should be a proper 
thickness for cloths, excepting that they should 
be in proportion to the width and length. Cloths 
for large joints should be much thicker than 
those used for small ones, because the larger the 
cloth is, the more difficult it is to keep it in the 
shape required for wiping the joint. If a cloth 
used for making a four-inch joint were made of 
only about six thicknesses of moleskin, it 
would be no more, or at least but little more, use 
than one generally used for three-quarter or one- 
inch joints, because when a small amount of sol- 



JOINT-WIPING 213 

der falls on it, the cloth would bend down and 
let tlie solder fall, so that the solder would not 
remain in the cloth except that caught in the 
middle, where the hand is under it. Conse- 
quently, there is much difficulty in getting up 
the great heat necessary to make a large joint. 
Then supposing it were possible to get up the 
heat sufficient to wipe the joint, it is useless to 
try to make the point as regular as would be the 
case if moderately thick cloth were used. The 
reason is, that when the cloth is hot it gives too 
much to the pressure of each finger, and there- 
fore presses unequally on the surface of the 
joint, making it either bare at the edges and 
showing the tinning, or causing the body of the 
joint to be irregular and bad in shape, more es- 
pecially at the bottom where it is nearly bare. 

A cloth should be just thick enough to prevent 
the impression of the fingers having any in- 
fluence on the body of the joint, but at the same 
time it should be thin enough to allow it to be 
bent the shape required without any great exer- 
tion. A cloth cannot be employed like a mould 
used by a plasterer to mould a cornice, if it 
could, it would not be so difficult, and require 
so much practice to make a joint as it does. Al- 
though there can be no doubt that suitable tools 
are indispensable to the workman, yet it must 
be remembered, by plumbers especially, that the 
cloth, however well made both in size and shape, 



214 JOINT-WIPING 

will not make a joint without it is manipulated 
by an intelligent and experienced hand. 

Wiping Horizontal Joints. In the making of 
wiped joints one of the greatest mistakes that is 
generally made is that of using too thin cloths. 
It is very difficult, if not altogether impossible, 
to make a good shaped joint with' a thin cloth. 
The joints shown at A and B in Fig. 231 are 




Fig. 231. 



the kind of joint generally made with a thin 
cloth. By thin cloths are meant about five 
thicknesses of moleskin or ticking. Ticking, 



JOINT-WIPING 215 

however, is not nearly so suitable for the pur- 
pose as moleskin. Another objection to the use 
of thin cloths is their liability to get hot too 
quickly. Before the joint is finished it is al- 
most impossible to hold the cloth on account of 
the intense heat. A cloth suitable to make a 
good wiped joint should consist of about eight 
thicknesses of moleskin. The width of a good 
cloth should be about an inch longer than the 
joint, and the length about the same or perhaps 
a little longer. 

It will not be found a good plan to fold up the 
cloth out of one piece of material, as when the 
folds are at the sides, it is difficult to make the 
cloth bend as is required when in use. The bet- 
ter plan is to cut the cloth into pieces, of twice 
the length and exactly the same width as the 
cloth is required to be when finished. These 
should be folded once and then sewn together at 
the edge as shown in Fig. 232. To those who 
are in the habit of using thin cloths it will no 
doubt be found rather awkward at first to use 
thick ones, but a little practice will show that 
they are much more convenient to use and will 
turn out a better shaped joint as shown at C in 
Fig. 231. Thin cloths after they are hot get 
out of shape and give too much, with the result 
that the edges of the joint are often wiped bare. 
Another and very important advantage of thick 
cloths is that the joints may be made much 



216 JOINT-WIPING 

lighter, as it does not necessarily follow that be- 
cause a large amount of solder is used on a joint 
it is any more sound or stronger than a lighter 
one. 

When the solder on the joint is at such a heat 
as to make it difficult to keep it on the pipe, it 
should be patted round with the cloth, and the 




Fig. 232. 

surplus solder on the edges wiped off. The 
cloth should now be taken in the right hand, as 
shown in Fig. 233, and the wiping commenced 
at the ba,ck of the joint. While drawing the cloth 
upwards, the forefinger should be used to clean 
the edge nearest to it, after which the little 
finger should be used to clean the other edge. 
As soon as the edges are clean, the body of the 



JOINT-WIPING 



217 



joint can be fonned with the middle of the cloth. 
Then take the cloth in the left hand, and push- 
ing the surplus solder downwards, clean the out- 
side edges of the joint with ilie fore and little 
fingers. Now take the cloth in the middle of 
the right hand, pressing equally with each tinger 
so that the cloth touches the whole length of 
the joint, wipe round as far as is convenient 
with the right hand, then change quickly to the 




Pig. 233. 

left hand and continue the wiping under the 
joint to the other side. It may be sometimes 
necessary to wipe the joint round this way two 
or even three times before it is smooth and 
clean, but it is much the better way to avoid 
wiping the surface more than is necessary. The 
sooner a joint is left alone after it is formed, 
the better it will be, both for looks and reliabil- 
ity. 
Wiping Upright Joints. When wiping an up- 



218 



JOINT-WIPING 



right joint as shown in Fig. 234, it is better to 
proceed by stages than to try to wipe the joint 
all at once. The first stage is to pour on the 
metal and tin the joint, that is, cause a film of 
solder to alloy with the surface of the pipe. 




Fig. 234. 



When the above described operation has been 
performed, the iron should be made hot, and 
the joint should be splashed by means of the 
splash-stick, until the pipe is hot enough and 



JOINT-WIPING 219 

sufficient solder is on it to allow of tlie wiping 
cloth to be used. Great care should be used in 
melting the solder, if allowed to get red-hot the 
solder deteriorates. The soldering-iron should 
be heated to the right temperature and the bit 
filed clean and bright. The solder should first 
be splashed on the shaved portion of the pipe 
and then on about two inches of the soiled part 
at each end of the pipe. The cloth should al- 
ways be held under the place where the solder 
is being splashed on, to catch the surplus solder. 
As the solder runs down the sides of the pipe 
and is caught in the cloth, it is pressed up 
against the pipe to keep up the heat and also 
to tin the pipe. 

As soon as the pipe has been well tinned, the 
solder should be formed into the shape of a 
joint. Begin at the top of the joint, and with 
the hot iron in one hand and the cloth in the 
other, rub the iron over the solder on the joint 
and wipe round with the cloth quickly and 
lightly, working downwards until the joint is 
finished. When the joint has partiall}^ cooled, 
it may be cleansed and brightened by rubbing it 
over with tallow and wiping off with a clean 
soft rag. 

Wiping Branch Joints. Fig. 235 shows a 
badly shaped joint that is often made by the 
use of a thin cloth, while Fig. 236 shows a joint 
that may be much more readily made by the 



220 



JOINT-WIPING 



use of a thick clotb. Wlien everything is ready 
and the solder is at a suitable heat, it should be 
splashed on very carefully while at the same 
time the pipe should be warmed for a few inches 




Fig. 235. 



each side of the joint with the solder. When 
the solder on the joint is at such a heat as to 
make it difficult to keep it on the pipe with con- 
tinually drawing it up, take a small clean iron 



JOINT-WIPING 



221 



at a dull red heat, and start wiping at one end 
of the joint. Carefully form the sides of the 
joint and wipe the solder as hot as possible by 
the continual application of the iron before each 




Fig. 236. 



part of the joint is wiped. Finish the joint at 
the same end as it was started by drawing the 
wipe-off to the outside edge of the joint. 



222 JOINT-WIPING 

A lead pipe can be wiped to a cast iron pipe 
with a fair amount of ease, bnt the joint will not 
stand satisfactorily. Tlie best way is to file clean 
the end of the cast-iron pipe and then coat it 
with pure tin, using sal-ammoniac as a flux. The 
pipe is then washed, to remove the sal-ammoniac, 
and aftcTwards re-tinned, using resin and grease 
as a flux. A plumber's joint, 3% inches long for 
4-inch pipes, is then wiped in the usual way. 
Great pains will have to be taken to make a good, 
sound, strong joint between the two metals. Nev- 
ertheless, in the course of time, it may be only a 
few years, the cast iron will come out of the 
solder. The first sign of decay will be a red ring 
of iron rust showing at the end of the joint. This 
rust will swell a little and cause the end of the 
soldering to curl slightly outwards. Eventually 
the rust will creep between the solder and the 
iron and destroy the adhesion of the one to the 
other. Only those metals that alloy together can 
be satisfactorily joined by soft soldering, and the 
solder should contain as great a proportion as 
possible of the metals that are to be united. The 
joint would, if out of doors, be subjected to tem- 
peratures ranging over 90° Fahrenheit, under 
such conditions the solder would expand .001251 
inch, and the iron would expand .000549 inch, or 
less than half as much as the solder. The joint 
would therefore eventually become a loose ring 
on the iron pipe, but not on the lead pipe, as the 



JOINT-WIPING 223 

expansion of lead and solder do not differ ma- 
terially. 

Numerous experiments liave been tried for 
overcoming the difficulty of wiping joints on or- 
dinary tin-lined pipes, but the only method which 
has been found to approach success has been to 
insert a long nipple of tinned sheet iron, this 
method, however, has not been wholly successful 
with the ordinary make of tinned pipe. How- 
ever, on a new kind of tin-lined pipe, wiped joints 
can be made very easily, without the tin lining 
melting. 

It would often be a convenience if copper pipes 
could be united satisfactorily by wiping, but 
plumbers' wiped joints are of no use with cop- 
per tube, for the expansion and contraction will 
not permit them to remain sound, as many hot- 
water engineers know to their cost, brazed joints 
would be satisfactory, though troublesome to 
make. If copper pipe is thick enough to be 
threaded, have the fittings threaded also, and 
screw them together the same as with iron pipe, 
except that with long runs there must be expan- 
sion joints or other provision made for expan- 
sion. Even when a wiped joint on copper pipes 
is strongly made by sweating on a sleeve and 
then wiping a joint over the whole, it is doubt- 
ful if it would be permanent. It is very prob- 
able that electrolysis would set in, if the pipe is 
in damp ground. However, should circumstances 



224 JOINT- WIPING 

suggest that a wiped joint might answer, the 
^voYk is done as described below. 

Wiped joints on copper pipes are longer than 
wiped joints on lead pipes. Copper pipes 2 inches 
or more in diameter have joints from 3% to 4 
inches long, 4- inch pipes have joints about 5 
inches long, but it must be remembered that 
whilst reasonable length and thickness of joint 
are necessary to enable the copper pipe to with- 
stand pressure and strain, the maximum time of 
service does not depend on the length or thick- 
ness of the joint as in lead pipe work. That 
which determines practically the life of the joint 
is the extent of pipe which is carefully tinned 
before making the wiped joint. If the interiors 
of the two pipe ends are tinned, say, for 6 to 8 
inches, if the joint is cut open, in a few years' 
time, it is found that the tinning has diminished 
to 2 or 3 inches, a corroding action having taken 
place a,t the end of the tinning, for this reason 
it is advisable that the tinning be fairly thick, 
so as to retard the separation and ultimate fail- 
ure of the joint. In tinning copper, tirst thor 
oughly clean it with dilute sulphuric acid or 
scour with sand and water, and then rinse it 
with chloride of zinc, known as killed spirits. 
Melt some pure tin, throw in sal-ammoniac as a 
flux, and dip the copper in the tin, or pour or rub 
the latter over the copper. In pipes forming a 
portion of a distillery plant it is especially im- 



JOINT-WIPING 225 

portant tliat untinned spots are not left on the 
interiors of the pipe ends, as at such spots the 
destruction of the tinning commences at once. 
The pipe is strengthened by putting one pipe 
within the other, and the corrosion of the tinning 
is arrested when it reaches the lap. If sufficient 
lap is given, the pipe may be handled before the 
joint is wiped — a great convenience. The pipe 
ends are placed together, when pTacticable, over 
the iron pot containing the molten solder, which 
is then poured continuously over the joint until 
a heat is got -up. This practice is not possible 
with lead or brass pipes, because in the one case 
the lead would melt, and in the other the molten 
zinc would leave the brass and ruin the solder. 
When the pipes cannot be moved, a shovel is 
placed beneath the joint and the solder poured 
on rapidly. When a thorough heat has been ob- 
tained, the joint can be wiped, with the aid of a 
cloth and of the mushy solder from the shovel, in 
much the same way as a joint on a lead pipe is 
wiped. 



AUTOGENOUS SOLDERING OR LEAD 
BURNING. 

The art of lead burning has for many years 
been kept quite distinct from plumbing gener- 
ally, it is nevertheless a branch of the trade, and 
one in which large numbers of plumbers are be- 
coming very proficient. There is not required a 
large amount of skill or ingenuity in the execu- 
tion of lead burning, because, as a matter of 
fact, when it is compared with first-class plumb- 
ing, it is not nearly so difficult to acquire. In 
most cases where lead burning was considered 
necessary, such for instance as lining large 
tanks in chemical factories especially for the 
manufacture of sulphuric acid, the lead was 
simply used in large sheets fixed with tacks to 
wooden framework and the edges burned to- 
gether. Of late years, however, this method of 
burning the edges of lead together has been 
adopted for numerous other purposes, such as 
the lining of sinks for chemical laboratories, and 
lining cisterns in cases where the water attacks 
the solder. 

The modern term for lead burning is *^ auto- 
genous soldering.'^ The word ^^ autogenous" is 
rather an ugly one, and somewhat difficult to 

226 



AUTOGENOUS SOLDERING 227 

define, it pertains to the word ^ ^ autogeneal/ ' 
which means ^^self-begotten or generating it- 
self/' neither of which is very appropriate to 
the process of lead burning. In fact the latter 
term is not strictly applicable, because the lead 
is not burnt, it is only fused. The most suitable 
teim would be ^^ fusing process.'' Instead of 
saying ^^the seams are burned," it would be 
better to say ^Hhe seams are fused," as this 
would correctly describe the action that takes 
place. 

The simplest kind of lead burning is that 
known as flat seams, and which as a rule is the 
only kind that plumbers are likely to make use 
of. Professional lead burners of course are re- 
quired to burn seams in many different ways, 
even horizontal seams overhead are sometimes 
necessary. When the seams of sinks and cisterns 
have to be burned, the joints should always be 
arranged about 6 inches from the angles. Be- 
cause if the seams are arranged in the angles 
the flame of the blow-pipe is likely to catch the 
surface of the lead at the side and bum them 
through before the seam is formed. It is best 
also to butt the edges of the lead and not to 
lap them. Then when each edge has been shav- 
ed about a quarter of an inch wide, take a strip 
of shaved lead about half an inch wide and di- 
rect the flame on the end until a drop is melted 
and falls on the seam, at the same time the flame 



228 AUTOGENOUS SOLDERING 

should be directed towards the part of the seam 
to be burned, for the purpose of heating it. 
Then cause the flame to play upon the small 
drop of lead until that and the lead upon which 
it rests are fused, then draw up the flame quick- 
ly. This operation, owing to the intense heat 
of the airo-hydrogen flame, occupies much less 
time than it takes to describe it. So that the 
operator has to be quick in manipulating the 
blast if he wishes to avoid burning the lead over 
a much larger space than is desirable. It must 
not be supposed that a flowing seam like that 
produced by a copper-bit and fine solder can be 
formed by the burning process, this, under the 
circumstances, is not possible. Each wave has 
to be formed separately by a distinct applica- 
tion of the flame. The regularity of these waves 
will depend partly upon the skill of the opera- 
tor, partly upon the quality of the blast and on 
the purity of the lead upon which it is being used. 
But like most other mecharnical operations pro- 
ficiency has to be attained by practice and ex- 
perience. When it is found necessary to burn 
seams on the vertical side of a cistern, the lap is 
generally arranged in a slanting direction for 
the purpose of forming a ledge for the drops of 
molten lead to rest upon until they are fused 
into the seam, which is formed of a series of 
drops, instead of waves. A similar appearance 



AUTOGENOUS SOLDERING 229 

is obtained when seams are burned on an up- 
right side of a cistern in a horizontal line. 

Another very convenient way to produce a 
good flame for lead burning is to use compressed 
oxygen and coal gas. The oxygen can be obtain- 
ed in steel bottles, this, being discharged under 
great pressure, is used for the blast instead of 
air, a bellows is therefore unnecessary. 

When it is stated that a small sized blow-pipe 
of this kind with a supply of oxygen at the rate 
of 7 cubic feet per hour, and a gas supply 
through a quarter-inch pipe, will fuse a quarter- 
inch wrought-iron rod easily, th^ intense heat 
of the flame can be somewhat realized. Probably 
the oxygen method of burning would be rather 
costly where only small jobs of lead burning are 
occasionally required, but where there is a con- 
siderable amount to do the compressed oxygen 
would be far more preferable to the cumber- 
some and often troublesome hydrogen machine. 

There is yet another method which has been 
adopted to a very large extent for lead burning, 
namely the use of a red-hot hatchet copper-bit. 

The seam is placed, in the case of a pipe, on 
an iron mandrel, or if a flat seam, on an iron 
plate, and the hot copper-bit is drawn through, 
slowly fusing the lead together as it goes. A 
core or bed of sand will also answer the pur- 
pose. 

It is, of course, a rough and readj^ way of 



230 AUTOGENOUS SOLDERING 

doing the work, and it involves a large amount 
of time and labor in cleaning off the seams. But 
it is nevertlieless effectual, and, where more skil- 
ful means are not at hand, it often serves the 
purpose in a rough way. It would not, however, 
do for general application, in fact, in numerous 
instances where lead burning is required, it 
would not be at all practicable. 

In conclusion, it may be well to point out that 
the idea of substituting the burning system for 
soldering generally in plumbers' work is not at 
all likely to be an accomplished fact. It is all 
very well for special purposes, but the art of 
soldering in the modern style is too well estab- 
lished to be ever superseded by the compara- 
tively inartistic methods of lead fusing. Not 
only is lead burning not so attractive or so sub- 
stantial in appearance as soldering, but it is not 
nearly so well adapted to general plumbers' 
work, and there does not at present seem any 
probability of it ever becoming a successful com- 
petitor. 



PROPERTIES OF WATER. 

A tasteless, transparent, inodorous, liquid, 
almost incompressible, its absolute diminution be- 
ing about one twenty-thousandth of its bulk, pos- 
sesses the liquid form only, at temperatures be- 
tween thirty-two degrees and two hundred and 
twelve Fahrenheit. Chemically considered, it is 
a compound substance of hydrogen and oxygen, 
two volumes of hydrogen to one volume of oxy- 
gen. Water is the most powerful and universal 
solvent known. 

The gallon is the unit of measure for water. 
The unit of water pressure is the pound per 
square inch, one gallon of water measures .134 
cubic feet and contains 231 cubic inches and 
weighs about eight and one^third pounds, or sixty- 
two and one-third pounds per cubic foot 

The above is figured at sixty-two degrees 
Fahrenheit, which is taken as a standard temper- 
ature. 

The weight of a column of water of one inch 
area and twelve inches high, at sixty-two degrees 
Fahrenheit is .433 pounds, on 

.433X144=^62.35 pounds per cubic foot. 

The pressure of still water, in pounds, per 
square inch, against the side of any pipe or ves- 

231 



232 PKOPERTIES OF WATER 

sel, of any shape whatever, is equal in all direc- 
tions, downwards, upwards or sideways. To find 
the pressure in pounds, per square inch, of a col- 
umn of water, multiply the height of the column 
in feet, by .433, approximately one foot of eleva- 
tion, is equal to one half-pound pressure per 
square inch. 

The head is the vertical distance between the 
level surface of still water and the height in the 
pipe, unless caused by pressure such as by a 
pump, etc. Water pressure is measured in 
pounds per square inch, above atmospheric press- 
ure, by means of a pressure gauge. To ascertain 
the height water will rise, at any given pressure, 
divide the gauge pressure by .433; the result is 
the height in feet. 

Example: The pressure gauge on a supply 
pipe in a basement shows 25 pounds pressure. 
To what height will water rise in the piping 
throughout the building? 

Answer: 25-^.433=57y2 feet. 

While water will rise to this height, sufficient 
head should be provided to furnish a surplus head 
of about ten feet above the highest point of de- 
livery, to insure a respectable velocity of dis- 
charge. 

It is frequently desired to know what number 
of pipes of a given size is equal in carrying ca- 
pacity to one pipe of a larger size. At the same 



PROPERTIES OP WATER 233 

velocity of flow, the volume delivered by two 
pipes of a different size is proportionate to the 
square of their diameters, thus: A four-inch pipe 
will deliver the same volume as four two-inch 
pipes. 

Example: 

2 inches X 2 inches= 4 square inches. 
4 inches X 4 inches=16 square inches. 
16 inche6-^4 inches^ 4 2-inch pipes. 

With the same head, however, the velocity be^ 
ing less in a two-inch pipe, the volume delivered 
varies about as the square root of the fifth power. 
Thus one four-inch pipe is actually equal to 5.7 
two-inch pipes. 

Eixample: With the same head, how many 
two-inch pipes will it take to equal one four-inch 
pipe? 

Solution : 
2^ = 2 X 2 X 2 X 2 X 2 = 32 and the i/32 = 5.7 nearly. 

In other words, the decrease in loss by friction 
in the four-inch pipe, in comparison with the two- 
inch pipes, is equal to 1.7 two-inch pipes over the 
actual square of their respective areas. 

Water boils or takes the form of vapor or steam 
at .212 degrees Fahrenheit, at a mean pressure of 
the sea level, or 14.696 pounds per square inch. 
Water freezes, or assumes a solid form, that of 
ice, at 32 degrees Fahrenheit, at the ordinary at- 



234 PROPERTIES OF WATER 

mospheric pressure, and ice melts at the same 
temperature. Tlie point of maximum density is 
reached at 39.2 Fahrenheit, that is, water at that 
temperature occupies its smallest possible volume. 
If cooled further, it expands until it solidifies, and 
if heated, it expands. 

Hardness of water is indicated by the easy man- 
ner with which it will form a lather with soap, 
the degree of hardness being based on the pres- 
ence and amount of lime and magnesia. Tlie more 
lime and magnesia in a sample of water, the more 
soap a given volume of water will decompose. 
The standard soap measurement is the quantity 
required to precipitate or neutralize one grain 
of carbonate of lime. It is commonly recommended 
that one gallon of pure, distilled water takes one 
soap measure to produce a lather, and, therefore, 
one is deducted from the total amount of soap 
measurements found to be necessary to produce a 
lather in a gallon of water, and in reporting the 
number of soap measurements or degrees of hard- 
ness of the water sample. 

The impurities which occur in waters are of two 
kinds, mechanical and physical, dirt, leaves, in- 
sects, etc., are mechanical and can be removed 
by filtration. It is said that these impurities are 
held in suspension. 

Solutions of minerals, poisons and the like are 
physical and are designated as those held in solu- 
tion. 



PROPERTIES OF WATER 235 

Freshening water to render it palatable is ac- 
complished by aeration, that is, by exposing water 
to the action of the air, by passing air through it 
or raising it to an elevation built for that purpose, 
protected from dust and other impurities of the 
air, if the water is to be used for drinking pur- 
poses, and allowing it to run down an incline, 
which is slatted or barred, so as to break it up 
into small particles, and allow it to become sat- 
urated with air. 

This process, however, is of no practical use 
for actual purification. 



USEFUL INFORMATION. 

One heaped bushel of anthracite coal weighs 
from 75 to 80 lbs. 

One heaped bushel of bituminous coal weighs 
from 70 to 75 lbs. 

One bushel of coke weighs 32 lbs. 

Water, gas and steam pipes are measured on 
the inside. 

One cubic inch of water evaporated at atmos- 
pheric pressure makes 1 cubic foot of steam. 

A heat unit known as a British Thermal Unit 
raises the temperature of 1 pound of water 1 de- 
gree Fahrenheit. 

For low pressure heating purposes, from 3 to 8 
pounds of coal per hour is considered economical 
consumption, for each square foot of grate sur- 
face in a boiler, dependent upon conditions. 

A horse power is estimated equal to 75 to 100 
square feet of direct radiation. A horse power is 
also estimated as 15 square feet of heating surface 
in a standard tubular boiler. 

Water boils in a vacuum at 98 degrees Fahren- 
heit. 

A cubic foot of water weighs 62% pounds, it 
contains 1,728 cubic inches or 7% gallons. Water 
expands in boiling about one-twentieth of its bulk. 

236 



USEFUL INFORMATION 237 

In turning into steam water expands 1,700 its 
bulk, approximately 1 cubic inch of water will 
produce 1 cubic foot of steam. 

One pound of air contains 13.82 cubic feet. 

It requires 1^2 British Thermal Units to raise 
one cubic foot of air from zero to 70 degrees Fah- 
renheit. 

At atmospheric pressure 966 heat units are re- 
quired to evaporate one pound of water into 
steam. 

A pound of anthracite coal contains 14,500 heat 
uits. 

One horsepower is equivalent to 42.75 heat units 
per minute. 

One horsepower is required to raise 33,000 
pounds one foot high in one minute. 

To produce one horsepower requires the evapo^ 
ration of 2.66 pounds of water. 

One ton of anthracite coal contains about 40 
cubic feet. 

One bushel of anthracite coal weighs about 86 
pounds. 

Heated air and water rise because their parti- 
cles are more expanded, and therefore lighter than 
the colder particles. 

A vacuum is a portion of space from which the 
air has been entirely exhausted. 

Evaporation is the slow passage of a liquid into 
the form of vapor. 

Increase of temperature, increased exposure of 



238 USEFUL INFORMATION 

surface, and the passage o± air currents over the 
surface, cause increased evaporation. 

Condensation is the passage of a vapor into the 
liquid state, and is the reverse of evaporation. 

Pressure exerted upon a liquid is transmitted 
undiminished in all directions, and a,cts with the 
same force on all surfaces, and at right angles to 
those surfaces. 

The pressure at each level of a liquid is propor- 
tional to its depth. 

With different liquids and the same depth, pres- 
sure is proportional to the density of the liquid. 

The pressure is the same at all points on any 
given level of a liquid. 

The pressure of the upper layers of a body of 
liquid on the lower layers causes the latter to ex- 
ert an equal reactive upward force. This force is 
called buoyancy. 

Friction does not depend in the least on the 
pressure of the liquid upon the surface over which 
it is flowing. 

Friction is proportional to the area of the sur- 
face. 

At a low velocity friction increases with the ve- 
locity of the liquid. 

Friction increases with the roughness of th^ 
surface. 

Friction increases with the density of the liquid. 

Friction is greater comparatively, in small 
pipes, for a greater proportion of the water comes 



USEFUL INFORMATION 239 

in contact with the sides of the pipe than in the 
case of the large pipe. For this reason mains on 
heating apparatus should be generous in size. 

Air is extremely compressible, while water is 
almost incompressible. 

Water is composed of two parts of hydrogen, 
and one part of oxygen. 

Water will absorb gases, and to the greatest ex- 
tent when the pressure of the gas upon the water 
is greatest, and when the temperature is the low- 
est, for the elastic force of gas is then less. 

Air is composed of about one^fifth oxygen and 
four-fifths nitrogen, with a small amount of car- 
bonic acid gas. 

To reduce Centigrade temperatures to Fahren- 
heit, multiply the Centigrade degrees by 9, divide 
the result by 5, and add 32. 

To reduce Fahrenheit temperature to Centi- 
grade, subtract 32 from the Fahrenheit degrees, 
multiply by 5 and divide by 9. 

To find the area of a required pipe, when the 
volume and velocity of the water are given, mul- 
tiply the number of cubic feet of water by 144 and 
divide this amount by the velocity in feet per 
minute. 

Water boils in an open vessel (atmospheric 
pressure at sea level) at 212 degrees Fahrenheit. 

Water expands in heating from 39 to 212 de- 
grees Fahrenheit, about 4 per cent. 



240 USEFUL INFORMATION 

Water expands about one-tenth its bulk by 
freezing solid. 

Rule for finding the size of a pipe necessary 
to fill a number of smaller pipes. Suppose it is 
desired to fill from one pipe, a 2, 2i/2- and 4- 
inch pipe. Draw a right angle, one arm 2 inches 
in length, the other 2% inches in length. From 
the extreme ends of the two arms draw a line. 
The length of this line in inches will give the 
size of pipe necessary to fill the two smaller 
pipes— about 3% inches. From one end of this 
last line, draw another line at right angles to it, 
4 inches in length. Now, from the end of the 
2-inch line to the end of the last line draw an- 
other line. Its length will represent the size of 
pipe necessar^^ to fill a 2-, 2%- and 4-inch pipe. 
This may be continued as long as desired. 

Discharge of water. The amount of water dis- 
charged through a given orifice during a given 
length of time and under different heads, is as 
the square roots of the corresponding heights of 
the water in the reservoir above the surface of 
the orifice. 

Water is at its greatest density and occupies the 
least space at 39 degrees Fahrenheit. 

Water is the best known absorbent of heat, con- 
sequently a good vehicle for conveying and trans- 
mitting heat. 

A TJ. S. gallon of water contains 231 cubic inches 
and weighs 8 1/3 pounds. 



USEFUL INFORMATION 241 

^ A colmnn of watei* 27.67 inches high has a pres- 
sure of 1 pound to the" square inch at the bottom. 

Doubling" the diameter of a pipe increases its 
capacity four times. 

A hot water boiler will consume from 3 to 8 
pounds of coal per hour per square foot of grate, 
the diiference depending upon conditions of draft, 
fuel, system and management. 

A cubic foot of anthracite coal averages 5(> 
pounds. A cubic foot of bituminous coal weighs 
40 pounds. 

Weights. 

One cubic inch of water 

weighs . 036 pounds 

One U. S. gallon weighs ... 8.33 '' 
One Imperial gallon * ' ... 10 . 00 ^' 
One U. S. gallon equals. .. .231.00 cubic inches 
One Imperial gallon '' ... 277 . 274 '' '' 
One cubic foot of water 

equals 7 . 48 U. ? . gallons 

Liquid Measure. 

4 Gills make 1 Pint 4 Quarts make 1 Gallon 

2 Pints make 1 Quart 31% Gals, make 1 Barrel 

To find the area of a rectangle, multiply the 
length by the breadth. 

To find the area of triangle, multiply the base 
by one-half the perpendicular height. 



242 USEFUL INFORMATION 

To find the circumference of a circle, multiply 
tlie diameter by 3.1416. 

To find tlie area of a circle, multiply the diam- 
eter by itself, and the result by .7854. 

To find the diameter of a, circle of a given area, 
divide the area by .7854, and find the square root 
of the result. 

To find the diameter of a circle which shall have 
the same area as a given square, multiply one side 
of the square by 1.128. 

To find the number of gallons in a cylindrical 
tank, multiply the diameter in inches by itself, 
this by the height in inches, and the result by .34. 
Toi find the number of gallons in a rectangular 
tank, multiply together the length, breadth and 
height in feet, and this result by 7.4. If the di- 
mensions are in inches, multiply the product by 
.004329. To find the pressure in pounds per 
square inch, of a column of water, multiply the 
height of the column in feet by .434. 

To find the head which will produce a given 
velocity of water through a pipe of a given di- 
ameter and length: Multiply the square of the 
velocity, expressed in feet per second, by the 
length of pipe multiplied by the quotient ob- 
tained by dividing 13.9 by the diameter of the 
pipe in inches, and divide the result obtained by 
2,500. The final amount will give the head in 
feet. 

Example.— The horizontal length of pipe is 



USEFUL INFORMATION 2dt3 

1,200 feet, and the diameter is 4 inches. What 
head must be secured to produce a flow of 3 
feet per second! 

3X3=9; 13.9--4=3.475. 
9X1,200X3.475=37,530. 
37,530---2,500=15 ft. 

To find the velocity of water flowing through 
a horizontal straight pipe of given length and 
diameter, the head of water above the center of 
the pipe being known: Multiply the head in 
feet by 2,500, and divide the result by the length 
of pipe in feet multiplied by 13.9, divided by 
the inner diameter of the pipe in inches. The 
square root of the quotient gives the velocity 
in feet per second. 

To find the head in feet, the pressure being 
known, multiply the pressure per square inch by 
2.31. 

To find the contents of a barrel. To twice the 
square of the largest diameter, add the square of 
the smallest diameter and multiply this by the 
height, and the result by 2,618. This will give 
the cubic inches in the barrel, and this divided 
by 231 will give the number of gallons. 

To find the head in feet, the pressure being 
known, multiply the pressure per square inch by 
2.31. 

To find the lateral pressure of water upon the 
side of a tank, multiply in inches, the area of the 



244 USEFUL INFORMATION 

submerged side, by the pressure due to one-half 
the depth. 

Example— Suppose a tank to be 12 feet long and 
12 feet deep. Find the pressure on the side of the 
tank. 

144 X 144=20,736 square inches area of side. 

12 X .43=5.16, pressure at bottom of tank. Pres- 
sure at the top of tank is 0. Average pressure 
will then be 2.6. Therefore 20,736 x 2.6=53,914 
pounds pressure on side of tank. 

To find the number of gallons in a foot of pipe 
of any given diameter, multiply the square of di- 
ameter of the pipe in inches, by .0408. 

To find the diameter of pipe to discharge a giv- 
en volume of water per minute in cubic feet, mul- 
tiply the square of the quantity in cubic feet per 
minute by 96. This will give the diameter in 
inches. 

To find the weight of any length of lead pipe, 
when the diameter and thickness of the lead are 
known- Multiply the square of the outer diam- 
eter in inches, by the weight of 12 cylindrical 
inches, then multiply the square of the inner 
diameter in inches by the same amount, sub- 
tracting the product of the latter from that of 
the former. The remainder multiplied by the 
length gives the desired result. 

Example. Find the weight of 1,200 feet of 
lead pipe, the outer diameter being % inch, and 
the inner diameter 9-16 inch. 



USEFUL INFORMATION 245 

Tlie weight of 12 cylindrical inches, 1 foot 
long, 1 inch in diameter, is 3.8697 lbs. 

% X %=49-64=.765625. 

9-16x9-16=81-256-=.316406. 

.765625 - .316406=.449219 X 3.8697 X 1,200^2,086 
lbs. 

Cleaning Rusted Iron. Place the articles to be 
cleaned in a saturated solution of chloride of tin 
and allow them to stand for a half day or more. 

When removed, wash the articles in water, then 
in ammonia. Dry quickly, rubbing them hard. 

Removing Boiler Scale. Kerosene oil will ac- 
complish this purpose, often better than specially 
prepared compounds. 

Cleaning Brass. Mix in a stone jar one part of 
nitric acid, one-half part of sulphuric acid. Dip 
the brass work into this mixture, wash it off with 
water, and dr}^ with sawdust. If greasy, dip the 
work into a strong mixture of potash, soda, and 
water, to remove the grease, and wash it off with 
water. 

Removing Grease Stains from Marble. Mix IVo 
parts of soft soap, 3 parts of Fuller's earth and 
1% parts of potash, with boiling water. Cover the 
grease spots with this mixture, and allow it to 
stand a few hours. 

Strong Cement. Melt over a slow fire, equal 
parts of rubber and pitch. When wishing to ap- 
ply the cement, melt and spread it on a strip of 
strong cotton cloth. 



246 USEFUL INFORMATION 

Cementing Iron and Stone. Mix 10 parts of fine 
iron filings, 30 parts of plaster of Paris, and one- 
half parts of sal ammoniac, with weak vinegar. 
Work this mixture into a paste, and apply quick- 

Cement for Steam Boilers. Four parts of red 
or white lead mixed in oil, and 3 parts of iron bor- 
ings, make a good soft cement for this purpose. 

Cement for Leaky Boilers. Mix 1 part of pow- 
dered litharge, 1 part of fine sand, and one-half 
part of slacked lime with linseed oil, and apply 
quickly as possible. 

To keep plaster of Paris from setting too 
quickly. Sift the plaster into the water, allow- 
ing it to soak up the water without stirring, 
which would admit the air, and cause the plaster 
to set very quickly. If it is desired to keep the 
plaster soft for a much longer period, as is nec- 
essary for some kinds of work, add to every 
quart of water one-half teaspoonful of common 
cooking soda. This will gain all the time that is 
needed. 

To keep paste from spoiling. Add a few drops 
of oil of clove. 

To make a cement that will hold when all 
others fail. Melt over a slow fire equal parts of 
rubber and pitch. When wishing to use it, 
melt and spread it on a strip of strong cotton 
cloth. 

Bath for cleaning sheet copper that is to be 



USEFUL INFOKMATION 247 

tinned. Pour into water sulphuric acid, until 
the temperature rises to about blood heat, when 
it will be about right for pickling purposes. 

Making Tight Steam Joints. With white lead 
ground in oil mix as much manganese as possible, 
with a small amount of litharge. Dust the board 
with red lead, and knead this mass by hand into a 
small roll, which is then laid on the plate, oiled 
with linseed oil. It can then be screwed into 
place. 

Substitute for Fire Clay. Mix common earth 
with weak salt water. 

Rust Joint Cement. Mix 5 pounds of iron fil- 
ings, 1 ounce of sal annnoniac, and 1 ounce of sul- 
phur, and thin the mixture with water. 

To tin sheet copper after it has been well 
cleaned. Take it from the bath. If there are 
any spots which the acid has failed to remove, 
scour with salt and sand. Then over a light 
charcoal fire heat it, touching it with tin or sol- 
der, and wipe from one end of the sheet to the 
other with a handful of flax, only going so fast 
as it is thoroughly tinned. If the tinning shows 
a yellowish color, it shows there is too much 
heat, which is the greatest danger, as tinning 
should be done with as little heat as is neces- 
sary to make the metal flow. When this is dene, 
rinse off in clean water and dry in sawdust. 

To give copper a red appearance as seen on 
bath boilers. After the copper has been cleaned, 



248 USEFUL INFORMATION 

rub on red chalk and hammer it in with a plan- 
ishing hammer. 

To tin soldering copper with sal-ammoniac. 
It will be found very handy to have a stick of 
sal-ammoniac in the kit for tinning purposes. 
After filing the heated copper bright, touch the 
copper with the sal-ammoniac and afterward 
with a stick of solder. The solder will at once 
flow over the entire surface. In this there is but 
one danger, the too great heating of the copper, 
in which case the burned sal-ammoniac will form 
a hard crust over the surface. Tin with as little 
heat as possible. Sal-ammoniac will be found of 
great value in keeping the soldering copper in 
shape by frequently rubbing the tinned point 
with it. 

To Keep Soldering Coppers in Order While 
Soldering with Acid. In a pint of water dis- 
solve a piece of sal-ammoniac about the size of 
a walnut. Whenever the copper is taken from 
the fire, dip the point into the liquid, and the 
zinc taken from the acid will run to the point of 
the copper and can then be shaken off, leaving 
the copper bright. 

TESTS FOR PURE WATER. 

Color. Fill a long clean bottle of colorless 
glass with the water. Look through it at some 
blank object. It should look colorless and free 



USEFUL INFORMATION 249 

from suspended matter. A muddy or turbid 
appearance indicates soluble organic matter or 
solid matter in suspension. 

Odor. Fill the bottle half full, cork it and 
leave it in a warm place for a few hours. If, 
when uncorked, it has a smell the least repul- 
sive, it should be rejected for domestic use. 

Taste. If water at any time, even after heat- 
ing, has a repulsive or disagreeable taste, it 
should be rejected. A simple, semi-chemical 
test is to fill a clean pint bottle three-fourths full 
of water, add a half teaspoonful of clean gTanu- 
lated or crushed loaf sugar, stop the bottle with 
glass or a clean cork, and let it stand in the 
light, in a moderately warm room, for forty- 
eight hours. If the water becomes cloudy, or 
tnilky, it is unfit for dom.estic use. 



250 



TABLES 



Table Showing Pressure of Water at Different 

Elevations. 



Equals 

Pressure 

Feet Head. per 

Square 

Inch. 



1 

5 

10 

15 

20 

25 

30 

85 

40 

45 

50 

55 

60 

65 

70 

75 

80 

85 

90 

95 

100 

105 

110 

115 

120 

125 



.43 
2.16 
4.33 
6.49 
8.66 
10.82 
12.99 
15.16 
17.32 
19.49 
21.65 
23.82 
25.99 
28.15 
30.32 
32.48 
34.65 
36.82 
38.98 
41.15 
43.31 
45.48 
47.64 
49.81 
51.98 
54.15 



Feet Head 



130 
135 
140 
145 
150 
155 
160 
165 
170 
175 
180 
185 
190 
195 
200 
205 
210 
215 
220 
225 
230 
235 
240 
245 
250 



Equals 
Pressure 

per 

Square 

Inch. 



56.31 
58.48 
60.64 
62.81 
64.97 
67.14 
69.31 
71.47 
73.64 
75.80 
77.97 
80.14 
82.30 
84.47 
86.63 
88.80 
90.96 
93.14 
95.30 
97.49 
99.63 
101.79 
103.96 
106.13 
108.29 



Feet Head 



255 
260 
265 
270 
275 
280 
285 
290 
295 
300 
310 
320 
330 
340 
350 
360 
370 
380 
390 
400 
500 
600 
700 
800 
900 
1000 



Equals 
Pressure 

per 
Square 

Inch. 



110.46 
112.62 
114.79 
116.96 
119.12 
121.29 
123.45 
125.62 
127.78 
129.95 
134.28 
138.62 
142.95 
147.28 
151.61 
155.94 
160.27 
164.61 
168.94 
173.27 
216.58 
259.90 
303.22 
346.54 
389.86 
433.18 



TABLES 



251 









§ 


00 


o 


ooo 


o 


o 


© 


o 
















































(N 
























. 










o 


CM 


lO 


w 


"d 


iH 


i 


CO 


•^ 


Tfl lO 


(X) 


rH 


rH 


tH 




■ 
















M 


01 


x: 


o 


00 


o 


o 


00 O 


O 


o 


o 


H 


tn 


o 


















< 




>5 


















^ 


"T 
















«M 


o 


a 


T-i 


^ 


CvJ 


CO 


tl 


ti lO 


l>- 


05 


rH 


^ 


S 




d 


(M O 


00 


o 


o 


o 


o 


O 


h^ 


"O 


JS 




rH 














< 


^ 


V 


















p^ 


^ 


^ 


















P3 
o 

Q 


o 

o 
o 




02 


th oq 


oq 


CO 


■* 


lO 


CO 


t^ 


si 

o 


i 


Tt^ 00 


CM O 


-*^ 00 


O 00 


o 


00 


o 


w 


fM 






1-H 












w 


0) 


c 


















^ 

w 


p. 


S 




1— ( 1— 1 


^ C<J 


oq oq 


CO CO 


Tf^ 


TfH 


»o 


> 


J5 






































s 


'S 


si 


b 


TtH 00 


c>q 


Ol o 


-^ 00 


cq o 


'^i 00 


o 


<1 


s 


o 






rH 


T— t 




rH 






g 




1 


1— 1 1— 1 


iH 


rH oq 


cq CM 


CM CO 


CO CO 


-^ 


^ 




















Eh 


■2 


^' 


§ 


Csj 


Tti o 


■^ 


00 CM 


O 


00 


o 


s 


0) 

S 

OS 

Q 






1—1 


rH 




T— 1 








P=H 


^' 


j2 


o 


O rH 


tH 


rH tH 


cq 


oq 


CO 


tf 
H 








































Ph 




ij 


§ 


00 


O CM 


CM 


O 


^ 


Tt^ 00 


00 


H 




g 






T^ tH 


T-H 










£^ 




<^ 


















;^ 




op 
CO 


i 


o 


oo 


o 


rH 


iH 


tH rH 


•r-\ 


Pm 




















O 


N 


















EH 


"c 


















1 


^"^ 


S 


lO 


o 


lO 


00 


O 


lO 


O 


i3 s 


3 
O 


tH 


C<J 


oq 


CO 


O 


t^ 


o 

rH 


^ 


PhM 


















5::;"^ = 




















«^-13 
























o 


o 


o 


lo 


o 


o 


Q> 






CO 


'^ 


kO 


I> 


o 


lO 


o 














rH 


iH 


oq 





















252 



TABLES 



Table of Quantitity of Water Delivered by Service 


Pipes of Various Sizes Under Various Pressures. 


Proportion of Head of Water (H) to Length of Pipe (L). 


Gallons Per Minute. 




OS 


h4 


J* 


h4 


h4 


vA 


4 


h4 


h4 




rH 


05 


CO 


t^ 


CO 


IC 


Tf 


CO 




II 


II 


II 


II 


II 


11 


II 


II 


55 


w 


w 


w 


W 


w 


W 


w 


w 


X 


19.8 


18.7 


17.7 


16.5 


15.3 


14.0 


12.5 


10.8 


% 


34.5 


32.7 


30.1 


28.9 


26.5 


24.4 


21.5 


18.9 


X 


54.4 


51.7 


48.7 


45.6 


42.2 


38.5 


34.4 


29.8 


1 


lll.Si 106.0 


100.0 


93.5 


86.6 


79.0 


70.7 


61.2 


1% 


195.21 185.2 


174.6 


163.3 


151.2 


138.0 


123.4 


106.9 


IX 


308.0, 292.1 


275.4 


257.6 


238.5 


217.7 


194.8 


168.7 


2 


632.2; 599.7 


566.4 


538.9 


488.1 


447.0 


399.8 


346.3 


2X 


1104.01048.0 


987.8 


924.0 


855.4 


780.9 


698.5 


604.9 


3 


1745.01651.0 


1560.0 


1460.0 


1351.0 


1234.01103.0 


955.5 


4 


3581.03397.0 


3203.0:2996.0 


2774.0 


2532.0 2265.0 


1962.0 


5 


6247.05928.0 


5588.0 5227.0 


4839.0 


4417.0 3951.0 


3406.0 


6 


9855.0 9349.0 8814.08245.07633.0:6968.0 6233.0 


5391.0 


"o ?' 




h4 


h4 


yA 


. 






. 


1% 


h^ 


cc'-t- 


«Im 


'-N 


vA 


h-1 


h4 


vA 




(M 


rH 


rH 


i-H 


i-H 


x'-ji 


^!^, 


"'^ 


is 


II 


11 


II 


II 


II 


II 


II 


11 


ss 


w 


w 


w 


w 


w 


W 


W 


w 


% 


8.8 


8.3 


7.7 


7.0 


6.3 


5.4 


4.4 


3.1 


% 


15.4 


14.4 


13.4 


12.2 


10.9 


9.5 


7.7 


5.5 


% 


24.3 


22.8 


21.1 


19.3 


17.2 


14.9 


12.2 


8.6 


1 


50.0 


46.8 


43.2 


39.5 


35.3 


30.6 


25.0 


17.7 


1>^ 


87.3 


81.6 


75.6 69.0 


61.7 


53.5 


43.7 


30.9 


IX 


137.7 


128.8 


119.3 


108.9 


97.4 


84.3 


68.7 


48.7 


2 


282.7 


264.4 


248.8 


223.5 


199.9 


173.1 


141.4 


100.0 


2X 


493.9 


482.0 


427.7 


390.4 


349.2 


302.4 


246.9 


174.6 


3 


780.2 


728.8 


674.8 


615*9 


555.5 


477.1 


390.1 


275.8 


4 


1602.01496.0 


1385.0 


1264.0 


1133.0 


979.3 


800.8 


566.2 


5 


2791.012613.0 


2420.0 


2209.0 


1976.0 


1711.0 


1394.0 


987.7 


6 


4407.0 4122.0 3817.0 


3484.0 


3116.0 


2693.0 


2204.0 


1558.0 



TABLES 



253 



Capacity 


OF Drain 


Pipe Under Different Amounts | 






OF Fall. 








Gallons per Minute, 




Size of Pipe. 


1-2 inch fall 
per 100 feet. 


3 inch fall 
per 100 feet. 


6 inch fall 
per 100 feet. 


9 inch fall 
per 100 feet. 


3 In. 


21 


30 


42 


52 


4 '' 


36 


52 


76 


92 


6 " 


84 


120 


169 


206 


9 " 


232 


330 


470 


570 


12 " 


470 


680 


960 


1160 


15 " 


830 


1180 


1680 


2040 


18 " 


1300 


1850 


2630 


3200 


20 " 


1760 


2450 


3450 


4180 


Size of Pipe. 


12 inch fall 
per 100 feet. 


18 inch fall 
per 100 feet. 


24 inch fall 
per 100 feet. 


36 inch fall 
per 100 feet. 


3 In. 


60 


74 


85 


104 


4 " 


108 


132 


148 


184 


6 " 


240 


294 


338 


414 


9 '* 


660 


810 


930 


1140 


12 " 


1360 


1670 


1920 


2350 


15 " 


2370 


2920 


3340 


4100 


18 " 


3740 


4600 


5270 


6470 


20 " 


4860 


5980 


6850 


8410 



254 



TABLES 



Dimensions of Wrought-Iron Pipe. 


Nominal 

Inside 
Diameter. 


Actual 

Outside 

Diameter 

in Inches. 


Actual 

Inside 

Diameter 

in Inches. 


Thickness 
of Metal 
in Inches. 


Threads 
per Inch. 


Length of 

Full 

Thread 

in Inches. 


X 


.405 


.270 


.068 


27 


.19 


>^ 


.540 


.364 


.085 


18 


.29 


% 


.675 


.493 


.091 


18 


.30 


X 


.840 


.622 


.109 


14 


.39 


% 


1.050 


.824 


.113 


14 


.40 


1 


1.315 


1.048 


.134 


11)^ 


.51 


1% 


1.660 


1.380 


.140 


llX 


.54 


1% 


1.900 


1.610 


.145 


llX 


.55 


2 


2.375 


2.067 


.154 


liX 


.58 


2K 


2.875 


2.468 


.204 


8 


.89 


3 


3.500 


3.067 


.217 


8 


.95 


3X 


4.000 


3.548 


.226 


8 


1.00 


4 


4.500 


4.026 


.237 


8 


1.05 


4X 


5.000 


4.508 


.246 


8 


1.10 


5 


5.563 


5.045 


.259 


8 


1.16 


6 


6.625 


6.065 


.280 


8 


1.26 


7 


7.625 


7.023 


.301 


8 


1.36 


8 


8.625 


7.981 


.322 


8 


1.46 


9 


9.625 


S.937 


.344 


8 


1.57 


10 


10.750 


10.018 


.366 


8 


1.68 


11 


11.75 


11.000 


.375 


8 


1.78 


12 


12.75 


12.000 


.375 


8 


1.88 


13 


14. 


13.25 


.375 


8 


2,09 


14 


15. 


14.25 


.375 


8 


2.10 


15 


16. 


15.25 - 


.375 


8 


2.20 



Taper of the thread is % inch to one foot. 

Pipe from X inch to 1 inch inclusive is butt welded and; 
tested to 300 pounds per square inch. 

Pipe 1% inch and larger is lap welded and tested to 500 
pounds per square inch. 



TABLES 



255 





Decbial Parts of an 


Inch. 




1-64 


.01563 


11-32 


.34375 


43-64 


.67188 


1-32 


.03125 


23-64 


.35938 


11-16 


.6875 


3-64 


.04688 


3-8 


.375 






1-16 


.0625 






45-64 


.70313 






25-64 


.39063 


23-32 


.71875 


5-64 


.07813 


13-32 


.40625 


47-64 


.73438 


3-32 


.09375 


27-64 


.42188 


3-4 


.75 


7-64 


.10938 


7-16 


.4375 






1-8 


.125 






49-64 


.76563 






29-64 


.45313 


25-32 


.78125 


9-64 


.14063 


15-32 


.46875 


51-64 


.79688 


5-32 


.15625 


31-64 


.48438 


13-16 


.8125 


11-64 


.17188 


1-2 


.5 






3-16 


.1875 






53-64 


.82813 






33-64 


.51563 


27-32 


.84375 


13-64 


.20313 


17-32 


.53125 


55-64 


.85938 


7-32 


.21875 


35-64 


.54688 


7-8 


.875 


15-64 


.23438 


9-16 


.5625 






1-4 


.25 






57-64 


.89063 






37-64 


.57813 


29-32 


.90625 


17-64 


.26563 


19-32 


.59375 


59-64 


.92188 


9-32 


.28125 


39-64 


.60938 


15-16 


.9375 


19-64 


.29688 


5-8 


.625 






5-16 


.3125 






61-64 


.95313 






41-64 


.64063 


31-32 


.96875 


21-64 


.32813 


21-32 


.65625 


63-64 


.97438 



Melting Points of Alloys of Ti^ 


r, Lead, and Bismuth, j 


Tin. 


1 
Lead. Bismuth. 


Melting 
Point in 
Degrees 
Fahren- 
heit. 


Tin. 


Lead. 


Bismuth. 


Melting 
Point in 
Degrees 
Fahren- 
heit, 


2 


8 


5 


199 


4 


1 




372 


1 


1 


4 


201 


5 


1 




381 


3 


2 


5 


212 


2 


1 




385 


4 


1 


5 


246 


3 




1 


392 


1 




1 


286 


1 


1 




466 


2 




1 


334 


1 


3 




552 


3 


1 




367 











256 








TABLES 


' 








Weight of Twelve Inches Square of Various Metals. 






d 
o 

1 




|| 


1 


p. 
o. 
o 
o 




6 




1 


2.50 


2.34 


2.56 


2.75 


2.69 


2.87 


2.37 


2.25 


3.68 


% 


5.00 


4,69 


5.12 


5.50 


5.38 


5.75 


4.75 


4.50 


7.37 


A 


7.50 


7.03 


7.68 


8.25 


8.07 


8.62 


7.12 


6.75 


11.05 


X 


10.00 


9.38 


10.25 


11.00 


10.75 


11.50 


9.50 


9.00 


14.75 


A 


12.50 


11.72 


12.81 


13.75 


13.45 


14.37 


11.87 


11.25 


18.42 


% 


15.00 


14.06 


15.36 


16.50 


16.14 


17.24 


14.24 


13.50 


22.10 


7 
T6" 


17.50 


16.41 


17.93 


19.25 


18.82 


20.12 


16.17 


15.75 


25.80 


y^ 


20.90 


18.75 


20.50 


22.00 


21.50 


23.00 


19.00 


18.00 


29.50 


A 


22.50 


21.10 


23.06 


24.75 


24.20 


25.87 


21.37 


20.25 


33.17 


5/ 
/8 


25.00 


23.44 


25.62 


27.50 


26.90 


28.74 


23.74 


22.50 


36.84 


li 


27.50 


25.79 


28.18 


30.25 


29.58 


31.62 


26.12 


24.75 


40.54 


% 


30.00 


28.12 


30.72 


33.00 


32.28 


34.48 


28.48 


27.00 


44.20 


1 3 


32.50 


30.48 


33.28 


35.75 


34.95 


37.37 


30.87 


29.25 


47.92 


% 


35.00 


32.82 


35.86 


38.50 


37.64 


40.24 


32.34 


31.50 


51.60 


II 


37.50 


35.16 


38.43 


41.25 


40.32 


43.12 


35.61 


33.75 


55.36 


1 


40.00 


37.50 


41.00 


44.00 


43.00 


46.00 


38.00 


36.00 


59.00 


Weight of Metals. T 


Find Weig 


^HT IN 


Pounds. 


Aluminium. 






..cubic 


inche 


3 X 0.094 
X0.31 


Brass 






CoDDer 






X 0.32 


Cast-iron 






X0.26 


Wrought-Iron 






X 0.28 


Lead 






X0.41 


Mercury 






X0.49 


Nickel 






X0.31 


Tin 






XO.26 


Zinc 






X0.26 



TABLES 



257 



Weight of Copper Pipes Per Foot. 




Thickness of Metal in Parts of an Inch. 1 


Bore in 
Inches. 


1 
















tV 


% 


A 


y 


tV 


% 




pounds. 


pounds. 


pounds. 


pounds. 


pounds. 


pounds. 


% 


0.426 


0.946 


1.561 


2.270 


3.075 


3.973 


% 


0.520 


1.185 


1.845 


2.649 


3.547 


4.540 


% 


0.615 


1.324 


2.129 


3.027 


4.020 


5.108 


% 


0.709 


1.514 


2.412 


3.425 


4.493 


5.676 


1 


0.804 


1.703 


2.696 


3.784 


4.966 


6.243 


iX 


0.993 


2.081 


3.263 


4.540 


5.712 


7.378 


1% 


1.182 


2.459 


3,831 


5.297 


6.857 


8.514 


1% 


1.872 


2.838 


4.388 


6.055 


7.805 


9.646 


2 


1.560 


3.217 


4.967 


6.808 


8.748 


10.783 


2X 


1.750 


3.591 


5.531 


7.566 


9.694 


11.918 


2% 


1.940 


3.975 


6.103 


8.327 


10.643 


13.066 


2% 


2.128 


4.352 


6.668 


9.081 


11.590 


14.190 


3 


2.316 


4.729 


7.238 


9.737 


12.534 


15.325 


Weight of Brass Pipes Pe;r Foot. 




Thickness in Parts of an Inch. 1 


Bore in 
Inches. 


1 








1 




tV 


% 


-h 


y^ 


T6 


% 


tV 




pounds 


pounds 


pounds. 


pounds. 


pounds 1 pounds 


pounds. 


K 


0.22 


0.53 


0.94 


1.43 


2.01 


2.68 


3.44 


% 


0.40 


0.89 


1.47 


2.15 


2.91 


3,75 


4.70 


% 


0.58 


1.25 


2.01 


2.86 


3.80 


4.83 


5.95 


1 


0.76 


1.61 


2.55 


3.58 


4.70 


5.92 


7.25 


IK 


0.94 


1.96 


3.09 


4.31 


5.64 


6.98 


9.46 


\% 


1.12 


2.34 


3.67 


5.01 


6.49 


8.05 


9.71 


1% 


1.33 


2.66 


4.14 


5.70 


7.36 


9.11 


10.94 


2 


1.48 


3.04 


4.69 


6.44 


8.27 


10.20 


12.21 


2X 


1.65 


3.40 


5.23 


7.16 


9.17 


11.27 


13.46 


2% 


1.83 


3.75 


5.77 


' 7.87 


10.06 


12.35 


14.72 


2%. 


2.01 


4.11 


6.31 


8.59 


10.96 


13.42 


15.97 


3 


2.19 


4.47 


6.84 


9.31 


11.85 


14.69 


17.42 



258 



TABLES 



-Diameters, Circumferences, 


Areas, Squares, | 






AND 


Cubes. 






Diameter 
in Inches. 


Circum- 
ference in 
Inches. 


Area in 
Square 
Inches. 


Area in 
Square 
Feet. 


Square, 
in Inches. 


Cube, 
in Inches. 


% 


.3927 


.0122 




.0156 


.00195 


% 


.7854 


.0490 





.0625 


.01563 


% 


1.1781 


.1104 




.1406 


.05273 


% 


1.5708 


1963 





.25 


.125 


% 


1.9635 


.3068 




.3906 


.24414 


% 


2.3562 


.4417 




.5625 


.42138 


X 


2.7489 


.6013 





.7656 


.66992 




3.1416 


.7854 




1. 


1. 


IX 


3.5343 


• .9940 


.0069 


1.2656 


1.42383 


IX 


3.9270 


1.2271 


.0084 


1.5625 


1.95313 


1% 


4.3197 


1.4848 


.0102 


1.8906 


2.59961 


IX 


4.7124 


1.7671 


.0122 


2.25 


3.375 


IX 


5.1051 


2.0739 


.0143 


2.6406 


4.291 


IX 


5.4978 


2.4052 


.0166 


3.0265 


5.3593 


IX 


5.8905 


2.7611 


.0191 


3.5156 


6.5918 


2 


6.2832 


3.1416 


.0225 


4. 


8. 


2X 


6.6759 


3.5465 


.0245 


4.5156 


9.5957 


2X 


7.0686 


3.9760 


.0275 


5.0625 


11.3906 


2X 


7.4613 


4.4302 


.0307 


5.6406 


13.3965 


2X 


7.8540 


4.9087 


.0340 


6.25 


15.625 


2X 


8.2467 


5.4119 


.0375 


6.8906 


18.0879 


2X 


8.6394 


5.9395 


.0411 


7.5625 


20.7969 


2X 


9.0321 


6.4918 


.0450 


8.2656 


23.7637 


3 


9.4248 


7.0686 


.0490 


9. 


27. 


3X 


9.8175 


7.6699 


.0531 


9.7656 


30.5176 


3X 


10.210 


8.2957 


.0575 


10.5625 


34.3281 


3X 


10.602 


8.9462 


.0620 


11.3906 


38.4434 


3X 


10.995 


9.6211 


.0668 


12.25 


42.875 


3X 


11.388 


10.320 


.0730 


13.1406 


47.634 


3X 


11.781 


11.044 


.0767 


14.0625 


52.734 


3X 


12.173 


11.793 


.0818 


15.0156 


58.185 


4 


12.566 


12.566 


.0879 


16. 


64. 



TABLES 



259 



Diameters, Circumferences, Areas, Squares, 1 






AND 


Cubes. 






Diameter 
in Inches. 


Circum- 
ference in 
Inches. 


Area in 
Square 
Inches. 


Area in 

Square 

Feet. 


Square, 
in Inches. 


Cube, 
in Inches. 


4% 


12.959 


13.364 


.0935 


17.0156 


70.1895 


4X 


ia.351 


14.186 


.0993 


18.0625 


76.7656 


4% 


13.744 


15.033 


.1052 


19.1406 


83.7402 


4X 


14.137 


15.904 


.1113 


20.25 


91.125 


4% 


14.529 


16.800 


.1176 


21.3906 


98.9316 


4% 


14.922 


17.720 


.1240 


22.5625 


107.1719 


4% 


15.315 


18.665 


.1306 


23.7656 


115.8574 


5 


15.708 


19.635 


.1374 


25. 


125. 


5% 


16.100 


20.629 


.1444 


26.2656 


134.6113 


5X 


16.493 


21.647 


.1515 


27.5625 


144.7031 


5% 


16.886 


22.690 


.1588 


28.8906 


155.2871 


5X 


17.278 


23.758 


.1663 


30.25 


166.375 


5^ 


17.671 


24.850 


.1739 


31.6406 


177.9785 


5% 


18.064 


25.967 


.1817 


33.0625 


190.1094 


5% 


18.457 


27.108 


.1897 


34.5186 


202.7793 


6. 


18.849 


28.274 


.1979 


36. 


216. 


6% 


19.242 


29.464 


.2062 


37.5156 


229.7832 


6X 


19.635 


30.679 


.2147 


39.0625 


244.1406 


6% 


20.027 


31.919 


.2234 


40.6406 


259.084 


6X 


20.420 


33.183 


.2322 


42.25 


274.625 


QVs 


20.813 


34.471 


.2412 


43.8906 


290.7754 


6% 


21.205 


35.784 


.2504 


45.5625 


307.5469 


67^ 


21.598 


37.122 


.2598 


47.2656 


324.9512 


7 


21.991 


38.484 


.2693 


49. 


343. 


7% 


22.383 


39.871 


.2791 


50.7656 


361.7051 


7X 


22.776 


41.282 


.2889 


52.5625 


381.0781 


7% 


23.169 


42.718 


.2990 


54.3906 


401.1309 


7X 


23.562 


44.178 


.3092 


56.25 


421.879 


7^8 


23.954 


45.663 


.3196 


58.1406 


443.3223 


7% 


24.347 


47.173 


.3299 


60.0625 


465.4844 


r/s 


24.740 


48.707 


.3409 


62.0156 


488.3730 


8 


25.132- 


50.265 


.3518 


64. 


512. 



Diameters, Circumferences, Areas, Squares, 
AND Cubes. 



Diameter 
in Inches. 


Circum- 
ference in 
Inches. 


Area in 
Square 
Inches. 


Area in 
Square 
Feet. 


Square, 
in Inches. 


Cube, 
in Inches. 


8% 


25.515 


51.848 


.3629 


66.0156 


536.3770 


8X 


25.918 


53.456 


.3741 


68.0625 


561.5156 


8% 


26.310 


55.088 


.3856 


70.1406 


587.4277 


8X 


26.703 


56.745 


.3972 


72.25 


614.125 


8% 


27.096 


58.426 


.4089 


74.3906 


641.6191 


8X 


27.489 


60.132 


.4209 


76.5625 


669.9219 


8% 


27.881 


61.862 


.4330 


78.7656 


699.0449 


9 


28.274 


63.617 


.4453 


81. 


729. 


9X 


28.667 


65.396 


.4577 


83.2656 


759.7988 


9X 


29.059 


67.200 


.4704 


85.5625 


791.4531 


9% 


29.452 


69.029 


.4832 


87.8906 


823.9746 


9X 


29.845 


70.882 


.4961 


90.25 


857.375 


9% 


30.237 


72.759 


.5093 


92.6406 


891.666 


9% 


30.630 


74.662 


.5226 


95.0625 


926.8594 


9% 


31.023 


76.588 


.5361 


97.5156 


962.0968 


10 


31.416 


78.540 


.5497 


100. 


1000. 


10% 


31.808 


80.515 


.5636 


102.5156 


1037.9707 


10% 


32.201 


82.516 


.5776 


105.0625 


1076.8906 


10% 


32.594 


84.540 


.5917 


107.6406 


1116.7715 


10% 


32.986 


86.590 


.6061 


110.25 


1157.625 


10% 


33.379 


88.664 


.6206 


112.8906 


1199.4629 


10% 


33.772 


90.762 


.6353 


115.5625 


1242.2969 


10% 


34.164 


92.885 


.6499 


118.2656 


1286.1387 


11 


34.557 


95.033 


.6652 


121. 


1331. 


11% 


34.950 


97.205 


.6804 


123.7656 


1376.8926 


11% 


35.343 


99.402 


.6958 


126.5625 


1423.8281 


11% 


35.735 


101.623 


.7143 


129.3906 


1471.8184 


11% 


36.128 


103.869 


.7270 


132.25 


1520.875 


11% 


36.521 


106.139 


.7429 


135.1406 


1571.0098 


11% 


36.913 


108.434 


.7590 


138.0625 


1622.234 


11% 


37.306 


110.753 


.7752 


141.0155 


1674.5605 


12 


37.699 


113.097 


.7916 


144. 


1728. 



rABfiES 



261 



Weight and Thickness of Sheet Lead. 


Weight in Lbs. 
per Sup. Foot. 


Thickness in 
Inches. 


Weight in Lbs. 
per Sup. Foot. 


Thickness in 
Inches. 


1 


0.017 


7 


0.118 


2 


0.034 


8 


0.135 


3 


0.051 


9 


0.152 


4 


0.068 


10 


0.169 


5 


0.085 


11 


0.186 


6 


0.101 


12 


0.203 



?V-KT^ \. 













T 



II ' fl> 






7 






V:^^ 







Pv.^T^ Z. . 










PVK-\E 5 . 




4' \-E\o BttH^^y 4 



4-6^^SS Y^^^^^^ 



cor\n^CT\or\S cveKo ) 
12^ 5K"\V\ TO^ 















^ !^D\JH5 "X^^KV 



COUV\t.CT\0\-\S 

-^^2. VviK5V\ ^?^KY^ 
















J^ 



^ "t — I 




OVtfl^TVOW 













VV\ptD 



^ 






■A ^K^'SS 










to T^KP \, 







:^ 




COUtA£CT\0V\S ^^^"^^ \\ ^"^'f^^X^ [ ) 



^Q^ ^OOT ^K\V\ 
















Mis 




i^Z^^.?.>^(K*i^^ VJ[ 



V^^yTA^) 0><^v\'?v<:>'^ -^ \^ 



V^KO •^9s,\? 







aJ 
0- 



o 



(5 

&5 



tq ui 



A.\ V ^ ^ S. Vk V S.V^.V.V^V.V k k. V | l g 







^\\\\\w 




^ONU ?V?^"^ 



Qf\v\v3;<r\ 










?v^•\^ \S. 























/^^'^^^O^ 







CV.^Kr\0O"^b 









Closet 










?VN-^^ ^Q 




^N^^V^O0^N^\-b^?V\0V^\C. KCT\OV\ 







V^MER 



■^0?>^T5 



■^l 



oi 



5 

a- 






o 

)r 

'•• i^ -J o 




ViOCKL.'"^ S£M 



VErsT 













si 







«AKPt ov 



Pv.K-\e Z<o 




















/ 






?V£iIt_il 






C\.0 5^1 



W»^T*<^ BV«,'r*»^»*>6 to ecus** 



SO'.T>iK TA»P9k.t. T^f^i9 




pLKtt ^^. 













?LMe 30. 













c 







iR^ 



vs^ 



v.^^T^ 



"^ ^...^ PuK-te 33 _ >^^^^ 




•^ <;vt^nov)A C\.ie'\VAOv>-|: 



0>^TVtT 



\tAV.tX 











•V^lK^ 0V)*^^%^ 



V\.\-\E 2>T > 




C^VC\V\Q\>-\ 



. 

















pLKTe39, 






V 



_13t. 



Z 



i 













tP^*\<s\>V 






Am. QtT\CE^ 



P\,K-\^ 4^. 












o^ ^^^^-u ,>i<v\H b'OKQc e>t- 

A \ T^VK? t)0^yv ^^ 

gfe) ^^ f^^ f^ ^5^ fS^ 



CP^V^ \K0^ 6\nt^ 



I 



h 











C^V^iy^r\0\>-x 



vv> 




'toOOA^ VAX v\>«>*orti 



0. 



fv-K^t. ^<o. 




INDEX. 

PAGE 

House drainage 7 

Backwater traps 14 

Disposal of sewage 17 

Country water supply 22 

Rule for estimating delivery of water 23 

Compressed air system 23 

Cellar or basement drains 31 

Traps , 38 

Hot water supply 47 

Cylinder system 47 

Tank system 51 

Cylinder-tank system 54 

Hot water plumbing 57 

Plumber's tools 69 

Drainage fittings 77 

Soil and waste pipe fittings 77 

Traps 86 

Lead traps 90 

Hopper traps . . . . » 95 

Cleanouts 101 

Cesspools 103 

Sanitary plumbing 105 

The bathroom 105 

Bathtubs 106 

Sanitary plumbing for a bathtub 112 

Water closets 113 

Sanitary plumbing for a watercloset 123 

Urinals '. .126 

Washbowls . c 128 

i 



ii INDEX 

PAG I 

Sanitary plumbing for a wash stand 13( 

Drinking fountains 136 

Sinks 13r 

Grease trap 14^ 

Laundry tubs , 147 

Sanitary plumbing for a laundry tub 147 

Bathroom and kitchen fittings 15C 

Washbowl plugs 15C 

Laundry or bathtub plugs 15C 

Sink strainers 15C 

Bathtub fittings 153 

Urinal fittings 151 

Faucets 156 

Self-closing faucet 167 

Bibb and stop-cocks 167 

Boiler and water-back fittings 177 

Combination soldering fittings 177 

Combination lead pipe coupling 17S 

Traps m 

Counter-venting 18C 

Calking joints 181 

Solder ISi: 

How to make solder „ 19^ 

Soldering fluxes o 20C 

Preparing wiped joints _ 20^ 

Joint- wiping , . 216 

Wiping horizontal joints „ „ 21^ 

Wiping branch joints , 21^ 

Autogenous soldering , 22( 

Properties of water 231 

Useful information 23( 

Tests for pure water . . » . ^ « , 24^ 



INDEX 
TABLES. 

PAGE 

Table showing pressure of water at different eleva- 
tions o 250 

Weight of pipe per foot for a given hend or fall of 

water , 251 

(Quantity of water delivered by service pipes of vari- 
ous sizes 252 

Capacity of drain pipe under different amounts of 

fall '..,. 253 

Dimensions of wrought iron pipe 254 

Decimal parts of an inch 255 

Melting points of alloys of tin, lead and bismuth. . . 255 
Weight of twelve inches square of various metals. . . 256 

Weight of metals — to find weight in pounds 256 

Weight of copper pipes per foot 257 

Weight of brass pipes, per foot 257 

Diameters, circumferences, areas, sides of equal 

squares, squares and cubes 258, 259, 260 

Weight and thickness of sheet lead . , ,....,, 2<}\ 

Plumbing Chaits. 



HOT WATER HEATING 
STEAM AND GAS FITTING 



PREFACE 

This work is a modern treatise on Steam, Hot Water 
and Furnace Heating, and Steam and Gas Fitting, 
which is intended for the use and information of the 
owners of buildings and the mechanics who install the 
heating plants in them. It gives full and concise in- 
formation with regard to Steam Boilers and Water 
Heaters and Furnaces, Pipe Systems for Steam and 
Hot AYater Plants, Radiation, Radiator Valves and con- 
nections, Systems of Radiation, Heating Surfaces, Pipe 
and Pipe Fittings, Damper Regulators, Fitters' Tools, 
Heating Surface of Pipes, Installing a Heating Plant 
and Specifications. Plans and Elevations of Steam and 
Hot Water Heating Plants are shown and all other 
subjects in the book are fully illustrated. 

THE AUTHOR. 



RELATIVE ADVANTAGES OF STEAM AND 
HOT WATER HEATING. 

Tlie first cost of a steam heating system is from 
20 to 30 per cent less than that of a hot water 
system. This is due to the smaller sizes of pipes 
and radiators used on steam work. The cost of 
operation is however in favor of the hot water 
system. 

When steam radiators are shut off they cool 
much more rapidly than hot water radiators. 
This proves to be an advantage in favor of the 
hot water system. 

A steam plant requires much more attention 
and skill on the part of the operator than the hot 
water system. With regard to freezing, the pref- 
erence is in favor of steam, and in large buildings 
this is often a matter of great importance. A 
hot water system may be run during mild weath- 
er with much less heat than a steam system 
which must always be brought to a temperature 
of 212 degrees Fahreaaheit before any heat is felt. 

HEATING SYSTEMS. 

A steam or water heating system involves in 
its construction the following: 
A steam boiler or water heater. 

7 



8 HEATING SYSTEMS 

Pipe and pipe fittings. 

Valves. 

Radiators. 

Air valves. 

It also requires an expansion tank (water heat- 
ing) foT its successful operation. 

A good chimney. 

Good fuel. 

Good management. 

For heating a house or a small flat building the 
round sectional steam boilers or water heaters are 
unquestionably the best up to 1,500 square feet of 
radiation. 

For capacities above this limitation, rectangu- 
lar sectional steam boilers or water heaters are 
used. 

Ventilation. Ventilation is a most important 
matter in connection with heating. All living 
rooms should be ventilated, and the greater the 
number of occupants the room contains, thh great- 
er should be the amount of ventilation required. 

In the ordinary house, ventilation is obtained 
from the fresh air entering the rooms through the 
windows and doors, for the ordinary occupants of 
the rooms. 

Under ordinary conditions, an adult requires 
about 1,000 cubic feet of air per hour. 

The principal cause of the vitiation of the air 
in a, room is the respiration of the occupants. 
Moisture and gases arising from the occupants of 



HEATING SYSTEMS 9 

the room also tend to make the air foul. Lighting 
and heating are other causes. 

The air in a room is to some extent changed by 
diffusion, but preferably by the entrance through 
registers provided for the purpose, of fresh air 
that has been warmed, and by the outward pas- 
sage through flues, of the^ foul air. 

The foul air should leave a room near the floor. 
An open fireplace furnishes an excellent means of 
ventilating a room. 

The foul air is heavier than the purer air, and 
therefore settles to the bottom of the room. By 
drawing the colder and therefore heavier air, 
which is at the bottom, the warmer air at the up- 
per part of the room settles to fill this space, thus 
creating a circulation, and making the heating 
more effective. 

Heat. In what is known as the molecular the- 
ory, all bodies are made up of rapidly vibrating 
particles, the hottest bodies being those whose 
particles move or vibrate with the greatest rapid- 
ity, and through the greatest distances. The con- 
clusion is therefore reached that heat is not a 
substance, but a form of motion, and that this 
condition may be transferred from one body to 
another. This theory explains in a simple man- 
ner the various actions of heat. 

Upon being heated, the particles of a body tend 
to repel each other, and as a result of the action of 
the heat the body expands, and this expansion if 



10 HEATING SYSTEMS 

carried far enougli, finally produces a change in 
the state of the body, the point at which such 
change takes place varying with each different 
substance. As an example of this change a cake 
of ice when subjected to heat, melts and becomes 
water, and this water when subjected to further 
heat again changes its state and becomes steam. 

Heat may be transferred from one body to an- 
other in three ways, by conduction, by convection 
and by radiation. 

By conduction is meant the direct contact of 
one body with another. A heated bar of iron will 
transmit heat to another bar when in contact with 
it. 

Heat is also' transferred from one body to an- 
other by convection, by means of water or other 
fluids, which convey it from one point to another. 

Heat is transferred from one body to another by 
radiation through such a medium as currents of 
air. 



STEAM HEATING. 

The low pressure gravity and the high pressure 
steam systems are the ones in general use. 

The chief feature of the low pressure gravity 
system of steam heating is that all condensation 
turns to the boiler by gravity. 

A pressure of steam below 10 pounds above the 
atmospheric pressure is low pressure steam. 

The low pressure steam system is chiefly used 
in house heating, because it is safer than high 
pressure steam, and as it works at a lower pres- 
sure is more economical to use, and requires less 
attention. 

Not less than a 1% inch pipe should be 
used for a steam main, and this diameter should 
not be run for a greater length than 25 feet. 

Kegardless of the amount of work to be done, 
no steam riser less than 1 inch in diameter should 
b*. used. 

If too small the pipes will sometimes cause the 
radiators to fill with water. 

The steam main should be run as high as pos- 
sible above the boiler. A distance of 18 inches or 
more should be allowed if conditions will permit 
of it. 

Branches should always be taken from the top 

11 



12 STEAM HEATING 

of the steam supply mains or at an angle of 45 
degrees, but never from the side. 

Branches should not be taken from the side of 
the main, as water hammeTing and the forcing of 
condensed water from the main into the radiators 
may be result. 

Branches should be run full size from the main 
to the risers and connected with the latter by a 
reducing elbow. 

The horizontal branch should be one size larger 
than the riser, if more than 6 or 8 feet in length, 
as the circulation is not so strong on a horizontal 
as on a vertical line of pipe. 

A steam main should have a pitch of at least 1 
inch for every 10 feet of length. 

Branches should have a pitch of at least 1 inch 
for each 5 feet. 

Carelessness in the alignment of steam pipes is 
liable to form pockets or traps which will impede 
the circulation and cause hammering, due to the 
condensed water remaining in the pockets. 

When necessary to make a. direct rise in ord^r 
to get over an obstruction or to increase the head 
room, the pocket formed should be dripped by a 
small pipe into the return. 



STEAM BOILERS. 

Experience has shown that steam boilers made 
of cast iron are the most reliable and most effi- 
cient for heating purposes. No other metals which 
can be used for this purpose deteriorate so little 
from corrosion as cast iron under like conditions. 
A cast iron steam boiler cannot explode. Being 
built up in sections they are easy to set up and 
involve the least amount of trouble and expense. 
In operation they are simplicity itself and their 
management is easily understood. 

The capacity of a steam boiler should be at least 
25 per cent in excess of the total duty required 
by the radiation and pipe system for direct radia- 
tion. A^Hien indirect radiation is used add 50 per 
cent to the above. 

In locating a steam boiler, be sure and ascertain 
by careful measurements that will stand low 
enough so that the water line will be 18 inches 
or more below the lowest point of the steam 
mains. 

The boiler should be placed on a solid founda- 
tion and as close as possible to the flues. 

Tlie proper size of coal to use in a given size of 
steam boiler is a very important factor to its suc- 
cessful operation. As a rule the best results have 
been obtained by the use of range or stove coal in 

13 



14 STEAM BOILERS 

round boilers or heaters. For rectangiilar steam 
boilers good results have been obtained by the use 
of stove coal for the smaller sizes and egg coal for 
the larger ones. If bituminous or soft coal be 




Fig. 1. 

used instead of anthracite or hard coal, a boiler 
at least one size larger should be installed. 

Round Steam Boilers. The boiler shown in Fig. 
1 is entirely of cast iron construction, so arranged 



STEAM BOILERS 15 

as to amply pTOvide for expansion and contrac- 
tion. The only joints or connections are formed of 
heavy cast iron threaded nipples, making a pei*- 
fect joint, with no possibility of leaks from any 
cause whatsoever and absolute freedom from all 
necessity of packing of any kind. The general 
construction of both steam boilers is as follows: 
The circular base, or ashpit, which also forms 
the support for the grate, is substantially made of 
cast iron and gives a safe depth for accumulation 
of ashes. Resting on this is the firepot section, 
shown in Fig. 2. This section, being one com- 
plete casting in itself, and tested under heavy 
pressure before leaving the shop, is abso- 
lutely free from mechanical imperfections. In 
the center of the top of this section is a large 
opening, threaded to receive a nipple, which con- 
nects it with a closed section, shown in the right 
hand upper view. Fig. 2. This first, or interme- 
diate section, is of less diameter than the top of 
the firepot section. On top of this closed, or in- 
termediate section and attached to it in the same 
manner, as described for the connection of the 
firepot, there is an open section shown in the right 
hand upper view, Fig. 2, which is of the same 
diameter as the top of the firepot and entirely fills 
the jacket casings hereinafter described. On top 
of this is placed another closed section, and on 
top of this again comes the top section, which is 
either the steam dome, forming the steam boiler, 



16 



STEAM BOILERS 




Fig. 2. 

or the upper water section, forming the water 
heater, all connected together in the manner de- 



STEAM BOILERS 17 

scribed, with screw nipples, the top section, or 
dome, ha\dng the necessary tappings for the sup- 
ply outlets for steam, or the flow outlets for water. 

Casings. Extending from the outer edge of the 
top of the firepot section to the top of the upper 
section, or dome, there are cast iron casings, close- 
ly fitted joints. These casings are made in seg- 
ments and are interchangeable and easily applied, 
with no possibility of rusting, weariiig out or 
breaking. They form in themselves a perfect 
chamber for the retention of products of combus- 
tion, compelling these to follow such channels as 
will give best results. 

Firepot. The firepot is circular in form, entire- 
ly surrounded by water, is made in one perfect 
casting, and free from any possible chance of 
leakages. The inner surface of the firepot has 
projecting into it all around the sides a multipli- 
city of iron points, just long enough to prevent 
the water contact from chilling the fire and mak- 
ing it possible to secure perfect combustion and a 
uniform fire around the edges as well as in the 
center. The firepots are of sufficient depth to in- 
sure a deep, slow fire, forming the best and most 
economical heat-producing proposition for low 
pressure heating. 

Grate. The grate is of the triangular form and 
is at all times easily operated, and in its opera- 
tion it pulverizes all clinkers before depositing 
in ash pit. 



18 



STEAM BOILERS 



On all the laTger size boilers the grates are fit- 
ted with a heavy bearing bar in the center, thus 
prolonging the life of the grate bars, as it pre^ 
vents their warping. 

Simplicity of the Grates. The constrnction of 
the grate is exceedingly simple, and admits of any 
one bar of the whole grate being changed without 
the assistance of skilled labor. 




Fig. 3. 



Fig. 3 shows a vertical crO'SS-section of a steam 
boiler* 



STEAM BOILERS 



19 



Rectangular Sectional Boilers. The vertical 
sectional type of steam boiler lias been on the mar- 
ket and in all forms for a number of years. There 
are no new ideas that can be safely exploited in 
this line. The demand is for a simple, practical, 
easily handled device that will absolutely endure 
the work appropriated for it. 





"^ 




Fig. 4. 



The boiler shown in Fig. 4 is strong, of good ap- 
pearance, thoroughly accessible for cleaning, and, 
so far as can be determined from exterior appear- 
ances, a most satisfactory heater. The good opin- 



20 STEAM BOILERS 

ion already formed of the heater is further 
strengthened by reference to views of the inter- 
mediate and rear sections shown in Figs. 5 and 6. 
By reference to these cnts it will be seen that 
every possible advantage is taken of the fire sur- 
face, it being the belief that, unless great good is 




Fig. 5. 

accomplished in direct contact with the fire, there 
will be but little assistance obtained from the 
flues. 

Firepots. Firepots of the type of heaters are 
deep— to give a compact body of fire, and, besides, 
are covered with numbers of iron projections to 
prevent chilling contact of the fire with the ex= 



STEAM BOILERS 



21 



posed water surface and yet secure such perfect 
combustion as will quickly impart to the water 
the heat from the fuel and permit of maintaining 
at all times a clear, even fire in every portion of 
the firepot. 




Pig. 6. 

Boiler capacity. T!he capacity of the boiler 
should be at least 20 per cent in excess of the total 
duty imposed upon it by the radiation and pipe 
system. 

Example: Let 600 square feet equal the total 
radiation, plus 25 per cent for the surface of the 
mains, plus 20 per cent excess boiler capacity, 
.which is 900 square feet, the capacity of the boiler 



22 



STEAM BOILERS 



required. The same result may be arrived at by 
adding 50 per cent to the radiation. 
When direct-indirect radiation is used, an ad- 




ditional 33 1/3 per cent must be allowed, and when 
indirect radiation is used, add 50 per cent. 
Example : 

Total direct radiation=450 sq. ft. 
One direct-indirect radiator^ 60 
One indirect radiator^=190 



600 
25 per cent for surface of mainst=112.5 
33 1/3 per cent on direct-indirect= 20 
50 per cent on indirect radiator^=: 45 



777.5 
20 per cent excess capacity=155.5 

Boiler capacity=933 



I 



STEAM BOILERS 



Safety Valves. While not an absolute necessi- 
ty, some form of low-pressure safety valve is gen- 
erally used on the steam boiler of a low-pressure 
heating plant. Forms of low-pressure safety 




Fig. 8. 



valves are shown in Figs. 7 and 8, the one shown 
in Fig. 7 is spring controlled and capable of ad- 
justment for different pressures, while that shown 
in Fig. 8 has a ball weight instead of a spring 



z% 



STEAM BOILERS 




Pig. 9. 



STEAM BOILERS 



25 




Pig. 10. 



26 STEAM BOILERS 

and is consequently non-adjustable except by 
changing the weight. 

Water Column. Every steam boiler should be 
equipped with a, water column with water gauge 
and try-cocks as shown in Fig. 9. A combina- 
tion water column is shown in Fig. 10, with steam 
gauge on the top of the column. 

Damper Regulator. While an automatic dam- 
per regulator is not as essential to a water heater 
as to a steam boiler, it is a very useful device, and 
when used prevents overheating and occasions 
great economy in fuel. An automatic regulator 
for a steam boiler is shown in Fig. 11. Check draft 




Fig. 11. 

dampers, which are controlled by automatic regu- 
lators, are shown in Fig. 12. 

The damper regulator consists of a hollow bowl 
formed by two castings bolted together, with a 
rubber diaphragm between them, the lower cast- 
ing being connected to the steam space of the 
boiler by means of a short nipple. Through an 
opening in the top of the upper casting a plunger 
works, and across this plunger and connected to 
an upright lip on the edge of the diaphragm cast- 



STEAM BOILERS 27 

ing is a bar, from the ends of wliicli cliains con- 
nect to the draft door and check damper door of 
the boiler. 

As the steam pressure rises, the pressure 
against the under side of the rubber diaphragm 
is transmitted to the plunger which is raised, 





Fig. 12. 



thereby operating the rod or lever, and the chains 
connecting with the draft and check damper 
doors. The sliding weight usually on the rod 
may be set so that the leverage may be smaller or 
greater, according to the pressure of steam car- 
ried on the apparatus, before the operation of 



28 



STEAM BOILERS 



the doors will take place. By means of the dam- 
per regulator the rise and fall of temperature in 
the boiler may so regulate the draft that an even 
temperature may be obtained. 

The chains should be so set that the draft door 
and check draft will each be closed when the regu- 
lator lever is level, and there is no steam in the 
boiler. 

Pressure Gauges. The hollow spring in the 
gauge, shown in Fig. 13, is so shaped and arranged 




Fig. 13. 



and the mechanism is such that the vertical as 
well as the horizontal movement of its free ends 
is fully utilized. It thereby permits the use of 
springs 100 per cent stronger than can be used in 
any other gauge, so preventing their settling un- 
der any pressure which may be indicated upon 
its dial. 

The gauge shown in Fig* 14 may be used for 



STEAM BOILERS 29 

indicating either pressure or vacuum, as the case 
may be. It is graduated for pressure in pounds 
per square inch, and for vacuum in inches of mer- 
cury in column or pounds per square inch, as 
may be desired. 




Fig. 14. 

Smoke Pipes. Steam boiler smoke pipes range 
in size from about 8 inches in the smaller sizes 
to 10 or 12 inches in the larger ones. They are 
generally made of galvanized iron. TQie pipe 
should be carried to the chimney as directly as 
possible, avoiding bends, which increase the re- 
sistance and diminish the draft. When the draft 
is known to be good the smoke pipe may pur- 
posely be made longer to allow the gases to part 
with more of their heat before reaching the chim- 



30 STEAM BOILERS 

ney. Where a smoke pipe passes tlirougli a parti- 
tiooi it should be protected by a double perforated 
metal collar at least 6 inches greater in diameter 
than the pipe. 

The top of the smoke pipe should not be placed 
within 8 inches of exposed beams nor less than 6 
inches under beams protected by asbestos or plas- 
ter. The connection between the smoke pipes and 
the chimney frequently becomes loose, allowing 
cold air to be drawn in, thus diminishing the 
draft. A collar to make the connection tight 
should be riveted to the pipe about 5 inches from 
the end, to prevent its being pushed too far into 
the flue. 

Chimney Flues. Flues, if built of brick, should 
have walls 8 inches in thickness, unless terra cotta 
linings are used, when only 4 inches of brick work 
is required. Except in small houses, where an 
8x8 flue may be used, the nominal size of the 
smoke flue should be at least 8x12, to allow a 
margin for possible contractions at offsets, or for 
a thick coating of mortar. A clean out door should 
be placed at the bottom. A square flue cannot be 
reckoned at its full area, as the comers are of lit- 
tle value. An 8x8 flue is practically very little 
more effective than one of circular form 8 inches 
in diameter. To avoid down drafts the top of 
the chimney should be carried above the highest 
point of the roof, unless provided with a suitable 
top OT hood. 



STEAM BOILERS 



31 



Dimensions of Chimney Flues for Given Amounts of Direct 
Steam Radiation 



Square Feet of 


Diameter of 


Square or 


Steam Radiation 


Round Flue 


Rectangular Flue 


250 


8 inches 


8 in. X 8 in. 


300 


8 inches 


8 in. X 8 in. 


400 


8 inches 


8 in. X 8 in. 


500 


10 inches 


8 in. X 12 in. 


600 


10 inches 


8 in. X 12 in. 


700 


10 inches 


8 in. X 12 in. 


800 


12 inches 


12 in. X 12 in. 


900 


12 inches 


12 in. X 12 in. 


1000 


12 inches 


12 in. X 12 in. 


1200 


12 inches 


12 in. X 12 in. 


1400 


14 inches 


12 in. X 16 in. 


1600 


14 inches 


12 in. X 16 in. 


1800 


14 inches 


12 in. X 16 in. 


2000 


14 inches 


12 in. X 16 in. 


2200 


16 inches 


16 in. X 16 in. 


3000 


16 inches 


16 in. X 16 in. 


3500 


18 inches 


16 in. X 20 in. 


5000 


18 inches 


16 in. X 20 in. 



Fuel Combustion. Combustion is one form of 
chemical action, accompanied by the generation 
of heat. When such action takes place slowly the 
heat produced is almost imperceptible, but when 
it takes place rapidly, as in the burning of wood, 
coal, etc., the heat becomes intense. In the burn- 
ing of ordinary fuel, the carbon and hydrogen of 
the coal combine with the oxygen of the air and 
produce combustion, without which no material 
results may be obtained from the fuel. 

Combustion depends upon the presence of oxy- 
gen, without which it cannot take place. 



32 STEAM BOILERS 

Gombustion is estimated by the number of 
pounds of fuel consumed per hour by one square 
foot of grate surface. 

One square foot of grate will consume about 5 
pounds of hard coal per hour, or about 10 pounds 
of soft coal, under a natural draft. 

For 7% to 10 pounds of coal consumed, one 
cubic foot of water will be evaporated. 

A fire of a depth of 12 inches will do more ef- 
ficient work than one of less depth. 

The use of too large coal is attended with large 
air spaces between the pieces, and this large 
amount of air is too great for the gases escaping 
from the combustion of the coal, allowing the 
gases to escape into the chimney flue unbumed. 

The use of too small coal is not advisable, as it 
packs down so compactly as to prevent the admis- 
sion of the proper amount of air through the grate 
to produce good combustion. 



Pipe Systems. The three systems of heating 
described: The direct, indirect and direct-indi- 
rect radiation, are governed by the same rales in 
tlie matter of piping and steam supply, requiring 
only special rules for proportioning the amount 
of heating surface and for the arrangement of air 
supply. There are the one-pipe and two-pipe sys- 
tems, with several forms and combinations of each, 
and for the steam supply there are high and low- 
pressure systems, exhaust systems, gravity sys- 
tems and vacuum systems. 

The essentials of a heating system are : A source 
of steam supply, a system of piping to conduct the 
steam from the source of supply to the radiators, 
a series of radiators or radiating surfaces, a sys- 
tem of return pipes through which the condensed 
water from the radiators may be removed. 

It may be more briefly stated that the prime re- 
quisites for a steam heating system are: The 
source of steam supply, the radiating surface and 
a system of pipes connecting them. Should, how- 
ever, the supply and return pipes be embodied in 
the same system, it is just as important to arrange 
to dispose of the condensed water as it is to supply 
steam to the radiators. 

One-pipe System. The simplest form of steam 
heating system is known as the one-pipe gravity 
return system. The steam is generated ta the 

33 



34 



STEAM BOILERS 



boiler, flows through the pipes to the radiators, 
the condensed water as it is formed in the radia- 
tors draining out along the bottom of the pipes 
and back to the boiler by gravity, to be re-evapor- 




Fig. 15. 

ated into steam. This system may be used only in 
a very small plant, and one in which the pipes 
should be made of large size and given a very de- 
cided pitch toward the boiler. 

One-pipe System With Separate Return. In 
the system shown in Fig. 15 the main in the base- 



STEAM BOILERS 35 

ment is pitched so as to drain away from the 
boiler, and at its end a return pipe is connected 
and led back to the boiler, entering it below the 
water-line. In this manner the flow of the steam 
and the water of condensation is in the same di- 
rection in the mains, and upon the sudden conden- 
sation of steam, as occurs when turning steam into 
a cold radiator, the water falls down the risers 
against the current of steam, while in the main it 
is forced along in the same direction as the steam. 
If the mains are extensive they may be drained 
at different points. This system is extensively 
used for residences and buildings of only a few 
stories in height, and it has also been used in larger 
installations. In such a plant the risers as well 
as the mains must be of ample size, and the latter 
must have sufficient pitch and be thoroughly 
drained. 

One-pipe Overhead System. This is the only 
system of single-pipe connection which is exten- 
sively used in high buildings, such as the modern 
office building, and is shown in Fig. 16. In this 
system the steam is conducted through a large 
main supply pipe to the attic of the building, or 
to the ceiling of the top floor, and from this the 
mains extend around the building to supply the 
risers. The risers are connected with the return 
mains in the basement. In this system the flow of 
steam and condensed water is everywhere in the 
same direction except in the connections to the 



36 



STEAM BOILERS 




Fig. 16. 

radiators, and the risers should be so arranged 
that these connections may be comparatively 



STEAM BOILERS 37 

short. This system has the very decided advan- 
tage over the ordinary one-pipe system that the 
condensed water which falls down the risers from 
the radiators does not, when it reaches the hori- 
zontal pipe at the bottom come into contact with 
the main current of steam, as the horizontal pipe 
is only a drain in which there is practically no 
steam and which is intended solely for the pur- 
pose of draining of the condensed water. 

Two-pipe System. The two-pipe system is il- 
lustrated in Fig. 17 is much the same in all cases, 
but special adaptations of it are sometimes made 
to meet special conditions. There is a two-pipe 
overhead system in which steam mains are in the 
attic as well as in the one-pipe overhead, but there 
a separate set of return risers are provided which 
connect with the return in the basement. This 
system has been very little used. 

The One-pipe Circuit Steam Heating System. 
In this system the steam pipe is run from the 
boiler vertically .to the ceiling of the basement, 
from which point it pitches downward throughout 
its course around the cellar or basement, to a 
point at or near the rear of the boiler, where an 
automatic air vent is placed, and drop made with 
a pipe into the return opening of the boiler. 

The one-pipe circuit system is used in buildings 
which are square or rectangular in shape. 

When the building is of such shape that a one- 
pipe circuit will not do the work to advantage, 



38 



STEAM BOILERS 



that is to say, in long buildings, where the boiler 
is set at or about the middle of the building, it is 
then desirable to run a loop in either direction. 




Fig. 17. 



The Overhead Steam Heating System. In this 
system the feed pipe is carried vertically to the 



STEAM BOILERS 39 

ceiling of tlie top floor, or into the attic, and from 
this point branches are carried down to the differ- 
ent radiators. 

This system is used in office buildings, school 
houses, factories, and often in residences, when a 
main can be carried up into an attic. Frequently, 
owing to the absence of a basement under the 
building, it is necessa-ry to use the overhead sys- 
tem to heat the radiators. 

The return pipes should enter the top of the 
flow end of the radiator, and return out of the bot- 
tom of the return end. 

Some radiators on the one-pipe system may be 
connected a,s single pipe. Radiators on the over- 
head system may also be connected as on a one- 
pipe circuit system. Where this is done, the con- 
densed water from the radiator returns into the 
drop or feed pipe. 

Heating Surface. To estimate the amount of 
heating surface required to heat a room with steam 
to a temperature of 70 degrees Fahrenheit in zero 
weather with a steam pressure of from 2 to 3 
pounds and ordinary conditions of exposure, the 
following rule is given, which is for direct radia- 
tion, and based upon the glass surface, exposed 
wall surface and cubic space: 

1 square foot of radiation to 3 square feet of 
glass. 

1 square foot of radiation to 10 square feet of 
wall exposed. 



40 STEAM BOILERS 

1 square foot of radiation to 150 cubic feet of 
8pace. 

For each degree of temperature above or below 
zero, deduct from or add to 1% per cent of the 
radiation given by the above rule. 

Example: Eequired the number of square feet 
of direct radiation for a room 10x10x10 feet, hav- 
ing two exposed sides and two windows 2%x6 
feet. 



ft. 



ft. 

Example: Eequired the number of square feet 
of direct radiation for the same room, with one ex- 
posed side and one window 2^/2x6 feet: 

Answer: 



Answer: 
















Glass surface' — 


30 


sq. 


ft.- 


~ 3= 


=10 


sq 


Exposed 


walls — 


200 


i i 


i i 


f- 10= 


=20 


i ( 


Cubic 


space=l 


,000 


cu. 


i i _ 


f-150^ 6.6 


u 




Total direct radiation^ 


=36.6 


sq 



3= 5 sq. ft. 
10=10 '' '' 



Glass surface= 15 sq. ft. 
Exposed walls= 100 ^^ '' 

Cubic space=l,000 cu. " -^150= 6.6 '' '' 
Total direct radiation=21.6 sq. ft 



I 
i 



When indirect radiation is used, 50 per cent 
should be added to the above figures. 

Reducing Size of Steam Mains. The proper 
reductions in the size of pipe depend on the char- 
acter of the work to which the pipe is put. 

It is customary to rduce the size of mains by 



STEAM BOILERS 



41 



using Teducing iitthigs tapped eccentric, or by 
using a reducing coupling tapped eccentric, the 
idea being to have a continuous fall of pipe with- 
out the formation of traps or obstructions for hold- 
ing water at the points where reductions are made. 
It is customary to reduce the size of pipes for 
risers or radiator connections by using a reducing 
ell on the branch under the floor. 

Eccentric fittings are so tapped as to bring the 
bottoms of the openings of different sizes at the 
same level on the fitting. When these fittings are 
used they allow a continuous fall of pipe without 
forming pockets for holding water at the points 
where reduction in size is made. This is of ma- 
terial benefit to a heating system. 

Steam Mains. The proper size of steam mains 
for one and two-pipe systems are given in the ac- 
companying tables: 





Proper Size of Steam Mains: 

ONE PIPE SYSTEM 




Pipe Size in 
Inches 


2 


2K 


3 ' 3K 


4 


4.^3 


5 


6 


Sq. feet of 
Radiation 


200 

to 

350 


350 
to 
500 


500 750 
to to 
750 1000 


1000 

to 

1500 


1500 
to 

1800 


1800 

to 
2200 


2200 

to 
3000 


TWO PIPE SYSTEM 




Pipe Size in 
Inehes 


2 


2K 


3 


3^ 


4 


4K 


5 


6 


Sq. feet of 
Radiation 


500 


750 


1000 


1500 


2000 


2500 


3000 


4000 



RADIATION. 

Direct Radiation. Tliis consists of a heating 
surface in the form of a radiator or coil, which is 
placed directly in the room to be lieated. 

Indirect Radiation. Kadiators in the room to 
be heated on the first ot second floor are located 
in the cellar or basement, usually directly under 
the rooms to be heated. There is placed in the 
floor of the room to be heated, or in the side wall 
above the baseboard, a register and connection is 
made between this register and the radiator in 
the basement by means of tin or sheet iron pipe, 
for conveying tlie heated air into the room. 

The indirect radiator is placed in a chamber 
into which fresh air is conveyed from outside, and 
to which the hot air flue to the register is con- 
nected. 

The distance from, the top of the radiator to 
the ceiling of the casing should be from 10 to 12 
inches and from the bottom of the radiator to the 
bottom of the casing from 6 to 8 inches. The di- 
mensions of the cold air inlet should be IY2 square 
inches for each square foot of indirect radiation. 
The warm air outlet should be 2 square inches for 
each square foot of indirect radiation, which would 
be for a radiator containing 100 square feet of 

42 



RADIATION 43 

radiation, 200 square inches of cross sectional area, 
or a duct 10x20 inches. The dimensions of the 
warm air register should be 50 per cent larger 
than those of the warm air duct, which allows for 
the contracted area caused by the register face. A 
warm air duct having 200 square inches of cross 
sectional area should have a register approxi- 
mating 300 square inches. 

Direct-Indirect Radiation. This system serves 
a double purpose, that of Direct Eadiation and 
Ventilation, and is also placed in the room to be 
heated under windows, or close to the exposed 
walls. 

The lower front part of the radiator is encased, 
having an openijig at the bottom ot back of the 
base for the introduction of cold air by means of a 
duct through the outside wall of the building. 

On account of the cooling effect of the outside 
air passage between the coils of the radiator, in- 
creased heating surface to the amount of 33 1/3 
per cent must be added toi make it equivalent to 
direct radiation. 

This system of radiation is seldom used in the 
heating of houses, being more necessary where 
ventilation is required in the heating of public 
buildings and schools. 

Instead of placing all of the radiators at one 
point, it is well to divide it into two or more radi- 
ators, according to the size of the room. As heat- 
ing with steam or hot water is accomplished by the 



44 RADIATION 

turning ot circulation of the air in the room, it is 
well to divide and place the radiation at the most 
exposed points, in order to better heat the room. 

In small houses a radiator placed in the lower 
hall, if sufficiently large, will heat the hall above, 
but in large buildings, where the hall space is 
large, the upper halls should have radiators placed 
in them. 

A properly installed steam heating plant should 
be noiseless in operation and heat the rooms to 70 
degrees in zero weather on from 2 to 3 pounds 
steam pressure, and show a circulation of steam 
throughout the system on a pressure of 1 pound, as 
indicated by the steam gauge. 

A noiseless circulation in all radiators on a 
pound of steam or less indicates that the pipe sys- 
tem is of proper size and properly pitched, thereby 
avoiding low places, causing water pockets or 
traps. The proper heating of the rooms in which 
the radiation is placed on from 1 to 3 pounds steam 
pressure indicates that the heating surface or 
radiation is sufficient. 

Radiators. Heating surfaces are divided into 
three classes: Direct radiation. Indirect radia- 
tion and Direct-indirect radiation. 

Direct radiation covers all radiators placed 
within a room or building to warm the air, and 
are not connected with a system of ventilation. 

The best place within a room to place a single 
radiator, is where the air is cooled, before or under 



RADIATION 45 

the windows, or on the outside walls. When the 
radiator is of vertical tube, or a short coil, which 
can occupy only the space under one window, and 
when, as often occurs, there are three windows, 
the riser should be so placed as to bring the line 
of radiators in front of, and under the windows 
where they will do the most good. When a small 
extra cost is not considered, to use two radiators 
and place one in front of each of the extreme wiji- 
dows. 

When the room is large and has many windows, 
the heating surface, when composed of radiators, 
should be divided into as many units as possible. 

Indirect radiation embraces all heating surlaces 
placed outside the rooms to be heated, and can 
only be used in connection with some system of 
ventilation. 

All the heating surface is placed in a chamber, 
and the warmed air distributed through air ducts. 

Figs. 18, 19 and 20 show two, three and four 
column forms of direct radiators, and Fig. 21 a 
two-piece hall or window direct radiator. 

The indirect radiator is usually boxed, either in 
wood lined with tin, or in galvanized iron. Tlie 
former is best when the basement is to be kept 
cool, as there is a greater loss by radiation through 
metal cases, otherwise the sheet metal is the best, 
as it will not crack. 

Indirect radiators are usually hung from the 
ceiling in the basement under the rooms they are 



46 



RADIATION 



intended to heat. A cold air duct is carried from 
an opening in the outside wall to the stack box. 




Fig. 18. 



This duct must be provided with a damper, and its 
inlet covered on the face of the outside of the wall 
with a wire screen of small mesh. 



RADIATION 



47 




Fig. 19. 






48 



RADIATION 



The box inclosing the radiator shown in Figs. 
22 and 23 is made of wood lined with bright tin 
about half-way down. The sides of the box should 



'"^W'^^^'^^W^^ 




^4.4 




Pig. 20. 



almost touch the hubs of the radiator on both ends, 
so that the cold air coming in through the duct 
will surely find its way up between the sections of 
the radiator, and not around the ends of it. 



BADIATION 



49 




Pig. 21. 




Fig. 2Z 



50 



RADIATION 







Fig. 23. 



RADIATION 



51 



The radiator is shown connected for a two-pipe 
steam system. 

The cold air duct is provided with a slide, so 
that the air may be shut otf when it is not wanted, 
or when the radiator is turned off. The radiator 




Fig. 24. 

should be so hung in the box that the space above 
it is about one-third more than the space below; 
this provides for the expansion of the air after it 
has been warmed by contact with the radiator. 

Brackets for supporting the hall or window 
types of direct radiator are shown in Fig. 24. 



52 



RADIATION 



A direct-indirect form of radiator is illustrated 
in Fig. 25, in which the air is taken from the out- 
vside of the room to be heated and passes np be- 
tween the sections of the radiator as shown, the 
front of the radiator being encased. 




Fig. 25. 



EADIATION 



53 





Two Column Radiator for Steam 


OR Hot 1 






Water 


Heating. 






No. of 
Sec- 
tions. 


Length 

in 
Inches. 


SQUARE FEET OF HEATING SURFACE. 


45 
Inches 
High. 


38 
Inches 
High. 


32 
Inches 
High. 


26 
Inches 
High. 


23 
Inches 
High. 


20 
Inches 
High. 


2 


5 


10 


8 


61 


5i 


4% 


4 


3 


7X 


15 


12 


10 


8 


7 


6 


4 


10 


20 


16 


m 


101 


9% 


8 


5 


12X 


25 


20 


161 


131 


1\% 


10 


6 


15 


30 


24 


20 


16 


14 


12 


7 


17X 


35 


28 


23i 


181 


16K 


14 


8 


20 


40 


32 


261 


21^3 


18% 


16 


9 


22X 


45 


36 


30 


24 


21 . 


18 


10 


25 


50 


40 


33i 


261 


23X 


20 


11 


27>^ 


55 


44 


361 


29i 


25% 


22 


12 


30 


60 


48 


40 


32 


28 


24 


13 


32X 


65 


52 


43i 


341 


30% 


26 


14' 


35 


70 


56 


461 


37i 


32% 


28 


15 


37% 


75 


60 


50 


40 


35 


30 


16 


40 


80 


64 


53i 


421 


37% 


32 


17 


42X 


85 


68 


561 


45i 


39% 


34 


18 


45 


90 


72 


60 


48 


42 


36 


19 


47X 


95 


76 


63i 


50-1 


44% 


38 


20 


50 


100 


80 


661 


53i 


46% 


40 



54 



RADIATION 



Three-Column Radiator for Steam or Hot 
Water Heating. 





Length in 
Inches. 


square feet of heating surface. 


Number of 
Sections. 


39 
Inches 
High. 


33 
Inches. 
High. 


27 
Inches 
High. 


21 
Inches 
High. 


2 


5 


12 


10 1-2 


8 1-2 


6 1-2 


3 


7 1-2 


18 


15 3-4 


12 3-4 


9 3-4 


4 


10 


24 


21 


17 


13 


5 


12 1-2 


30 


26 1-4 


21 1-4 


16 1-4 


6 


15 


36 


31 1-2 


25 1-2 


19 1-2 


7 


17 1-2 


42 


36 3-4 


29 3-8 


22 3-4 


8 


20 


48 


42 


34 


26 


9 


22 1-2 


54 


47 1-4 


38 1-4 


29 1-4 


10 


25 


60 


52 1-2 


42 1-2 


32 1-2 


11 


27 1-2 


66 


57 3-4 


46 3-4 


35 3-4 


12 


30 


72 


63 


51 


39 


13 


32 1-2 


78 


68 1-4 


55 1-4 


42 1-4 


14 


35 


84 


73 1-2 


59 1-2 


45 1-2 


15 


37 1-2 


90 


78 3-4 


63 3-4 


48 3-4 


16 


40 


96 


84 


68 


52 


17 


42 1-2 


102 


89 1-4 


72 1-4 


55 1-4 


18 


45 


108 


94 1-2 


76 1-2 


58 1-2 


19 


47 1-2 


114 


99 3-4 


80 3-4 


613-4 


20 


50 


120 


105 


85 


65 



i 



RADIATION 



55 



Four-Column Radiator for Steam or Hoi 


. 






Water Heating. 






Number 


Length 


square feet of heating surface. 












of 
Sections . 


in 
Inches. 


42 1-2 
Inches 
High. 


38 1-2 
Inches 
High. 


32 1-2 
Inches 
High. 


26 1-2 
Inches 
High. 


20 1-2 
Inches 
High. 


2 


8 1-2 


19 1-8 


16 


18 1-8 


10 2-8 


8 


8 


12 1-2 


29 


24 


20 


16 


12 


4 


16 1-2 


88 2-8 


82 


26 2-3 


21 1-8 


16 


5 


20 8-4 


48 1-8 


40 


38 1-8 


26 2-8 


20 


6 


24 8-4 


58 


48 


40 


82 


24 


7 


28 8-4 


67 8-3 


56 


46 2-3 


87 1-8 


28 


8 


82 8-4 


77 1-8 


64 


58 1-3 


42 2-3 


32 


9 


87 


87 


72 


60 


48 


86 


10 


41 


96 2-3 


80 


66 2-3 


58 1-8 


40 


11 


45 


106 1-8 


88 


78 1-3 


58 2-8 


44 


12 


49 


116 


96 


80 


64 


48 


13 


58 


125 2-8 


104 


86 2-8 


69 1-8 


52 


14 


57 1-2 


185 1-8 


112 


93 1-3 


74 2-8 


56 


'^ 1 


61 1-2 


145 


120 


100 


80 


60 


16 


65 1-2 


154 2-8 


128 


106 2-3 


85 1-8 


64 


17 


69 1-2 


164 1-3 


136 


113 1-3 


90 2-3 


68 


18 


78 8-4 


172 


144 


120 


96 


72 


19 


77 8-4 


188 2-3 


152 


126 2-8 


101 1-3 


76 


20 


82 


198 1-8 


160 


183 1-3 


106 2-8 


80 



66 



RADIATION 



Radiator Connections. Methods of connecting 
radiators used in steam heating plants are sliown 
in Figs. 26 and 27. 




Fig. 26. 



They shonld be made in such a manner as to 
allow for expansion and contraction in the branch 




Fig. 27. 



supply to the radiator. This provision is shown 
in the illustrations of radiator connections shown 
in Figs. 26 and 27. 



■■■ 



RADIATION 



57 



When the overhead system is used, the radiators 
may be fed at the top of one end, and the return 
taken out of the bottom of the same or opposite 
end. 

The circulation of water in either case is posi- 
tive. 

All radiator connections should be of sufficient 
area to give the best results. 



Pipe Tap for Radiator Connections 


ONE PIPE SYSTEM 


Square Feet of Radiation 


Size of Pipe Tap in Inches 


20 


1 


35 to 50 


IX 


50 to 75 


IK 


75 to 100 


2 


TWO PIPE SYSTEM-TWO TAPPINGS 1 


30 


Ya^K 


35 to 50 


IxX 


50 to 75 


IXxl 


75 to 150 


ix^ix 



Air Valves. Automatic air valves have almost 
entirely superseded the use of hand operated air 
cocks. They are made with a composition disc, 
which is arranged to close the valve as soon as the 
hot steam comes in contact with it. They are pro- 



58 



RADIATION 



^dded with a screw attachment by which the valve 
opening can be adjusted after the valves are in 
place. The only disadvantage of the automatic aii 
valve is that when steam is turned on, the entire 
radiator becomes heated. By means of the plain 
air cock the amount of the radiator heated can be 
regulated, especially when connected on a one-pipe 
system. The automatic air valve takes the circu- 
lation in the radiator entirely out of the hands of 
persjons who are not acquainted with their prin- 
ciples, and in the case of indirect radiators is an 
absolute necessity. 






Fig. 28 shows three forms of automatic air 
valves, and Figs. 29 and 30 four styles of hand 
operated air cocks. 

Valves. Straightaway valves, commonly called 
quick-opening radiator valves, are best adapted 
to this work. Only one valve is used on a hot 
water radiator which is located iji the supply pipe, 
as close to the radiator as possible. One valve is 



RADIATION 



59 



used on a one-pipe steam system, and two on the 
two-pipe system. Valves should be used which 
have removable discs, such as the Jenkins disc 
valve. On one-pipe work the radiator valve should 
be placed on the flow pipe, and on two-pipe work 
on both flow and return pipes. To shut off a steam 
radiator the valve on the return should be closed 





Fig. 29. 



first, the supply valve last, and in all cases both: 
valves should be entirely closed or entirely open. 
To turn on a steam radiator the supply valve 
should be opened first, then the valve on the re- 
turn. The valves should be connected to close 
against the steam pressure, in order that the stuff- 
ing boxes may be packed or repacked while the 



60 



RADIATION 



heating system is in operation. Gate valves should 
be used in the mains and risers for the reason that 
they have a full opening and do not impede the 
circulation. 

Radiator Valves. The most commonly used 
form of radiator valve is the angle valve, with or 
without union connection, and with composition 




Pig. 30. 



disc, wood wheel, rough body and nickel trim- 
mings, as shown in Figs. 31 and 32. 

Gate valves as shown in Fig. 33 are sometimes 
used when the radiator connections require them, 
especially on a down or overhead system of piping. 

Angle valves with lock and shield as illustrated 
in Fig. 34 are much used in public buildings. 



RADIATION 



61 



Globe valves if used in a. steam lieating system 
restrict the flow of both steam and condensed 
water. Their use should be avoided if possible. 




Fig. 31, 



Figs. 35 and 36 show vertical cross-section and 
outside views of a globe valve. 

Swing check valves should only be used on the 
main section of a two-pipe system, close to the 
boiler, or when the return is underground, to> pre- 



62 



RADIATION 



vent the boiler from being emptied from a leak or 
break in the return pipe. 

An ontside vieAv and a vertical cross-section of 
a swing-check valve are shown in Fig. 37. 

Corner radiator valves are generally used when 




Fig, 



the radiator connections are above the floor line. 
Right and left-hand corner valves are shown in 
Fig. 38. 

A brass plug-cock with square or flat head, as 
shown in Fig. 39, for blowing otf the boiler, should 
always be installed either in the return pipe near 



RADIATION 



63 



the boiler or in the boiler itself. It should not be 
directly connected with a pipe to the sewer, the 
end of the pipe should be in plain sight, so that 




Fig. 33. 



any leakage due to not closing the cock properly 
may be noticed. 

Unsteady Water Line in Boiler. This trouble 
often results from grease in the boiler, the grease 
usually being present by reason of its use in the 



64 



RADIATION 



construction of the piping and manufacture of the 
boiler and radiators. The grease rests on the sur- 




Fig. 34. 



face of the water in the boiler, forming a. scum, and 
when this occurs, the bubbles of air formed by the 
boiling water cannot reach the surface of the water 



RADIATION 65 

and burst off intoi steam. This causes a disturb- 
ance in tlie boiler, the bubbles seeking for an out- 
let naturally finding it in the connection to the 
water column, or gathering in such force under a 




Fig. 35. 



portion of the scum, that tliey break together, and 
with such force as to force water into the steam 
main, often causing a vacuum wh.ch will empty 
the water glass and water column connections en- 
tirely. 



66 



RADIATION 



Blow the boiler off under pressure. This will 
usually remove most of the grease, if the unsteady 
line is due to grease. It may be necessary to repeat 




Fig. 36. 



this operation several times, at intervals of a few 
days, before the boiler is entirely clean. If the 
cause be due to the construction of the boiler, it 
may be necessary tO' use an equalizing pipe, that 
is, to make a direct connection from an opening in 



RADIATION 



67 



the top of the boiler to a return opening in the bot- 
tom of the boiler. 

Starting a Steam Heating Plant. After all the 
connections are made, pack the radiator valves and 
attach the air valves. Fill the boiler to the water 
line and start the fire, allowing the entire system 
to fill with steam by opening all the valves. When 
the steam has blown freely out of all air valves, 





Pig. 37. 



close the same, and if they are automatic adjust 
and regulate them, which may have to be repeated 
a number of times before they are in good working 
order. Garry the pressure of steam high enough 
so that the safety valve will blow off from 5 to 10 
pounds. Inspect every portion of the system care- 
fully, and if any leaks are found note the same and 
when the steam is down make the necessary re- 



68 



RADIATION 



pairs. After the system is found tight, keep the 
boiler under fire several days, and then blow it off 
according to the following directions : 

Close the main steam and return valves, or all 




Fig. 38. 



radiator valves. Make a good fire and get up a 
pressure of at least ten pounds. Open the blow-off 
valve, being careful that just enough fire is car- 
ried to maintain a pressure until the last gallon of 
water is blown out. Allow the fire to go out. Open 



RADIATION 69 

the fire and flue doors, and in about half an hour, 
close the blow-off valve, and refill boiler slowly to 
the water line, then open all radiator and main 
valves, and start the fire. 

The boiler should be blown off within a week 
after it is installed and in operation. 





Fig. 39. 

Steam Heating Plant. Figs. 40, 41 and 42 show 
the plans for a three-stoTy and basement apartment 
building equipped with a one-pipe return system. 
The boiler, steam mains, piping to radiators and 
radiators are all plainly shown. 



70 



RADIATION 




( 



Fig. 40. Basement. 



RADIATION 



71 




Kg. 41. First Story. 



72 



RADIATION 




Fig, 42. Second and Third Story. 



RADIATION 



73 



Temperature of Steam at Varying Pressures, 


IN Degrees Fahrenheit. 


Gauge Pressure. 


Absolute 
Pressure. 


Temperature in 
Degs. Fahrenheit. 





15 


212 


6 


20 


228 


10 


25 


240 


15 


30 


250 


20 


35 


259 


25 


40 


267 


30 


45 


274 


35 


50 


281 


40 


55 


287 


45 


60 


292 


50 


65 


298 


55 


70 


302 


60 


75 


307 


65 


80 


312 


70 


85 


316 


75 


90 


320 


80 


95 


324 


85 


100 


327 


90 


105 


331 


95 


110 


334 


100 


115 


338 


110 


125 


344 


120 


135 


350 


180 


145 


355 


140 


155 


361 


150 


165 


366 



74 RADIATION 

Estimating. Make a careful survey of the loca- 
tion, construction and exposure of tlie building to 
be heated, and take accurate measurements of the 
size of the glass surface and exposed walls of the 
rooms in which the radiators are to be placed. 

Having ascertained the total amount of radia- 
tion, select a boiler having a rated capacity of 50 
per cent in excess of the total radiation, which for 
the average system will allow for the duty imposed 
by the mains and provide a margin of 20 per cent. 

Make a plan of the basement to scale, locate the 
boiler, and lay out the pipe system, putting down 
the size of the mains and the branches. 

From the plan obtain the number of lineal feet 
of each size of pipe, including the risers, also the 
number and size of all fittings. 

Allow one air valve for each radiator, and one 
for the end of the steam main. 

The number and size of the floor and ceiling 
plates may be counted from the number and size 
of risers that will pass through the floors and the 
ceilings. 

The length of pipe covering may be obtained 
from the size and number of Ibieal feet of pipe in 
the mains. 



SPECIFICATION AND CONTRACT FOR A 
STEAM HEATING PLANT. 

We hereby agree to fumish and install in your 

house, street, a Steam Heating 

Plant, under the conditions, and for the price here- 
inafter named, and in accordance with the follow- 
ing specifications: 

Boilers. Furnish and set up in basement one 

No. steam boiler, having a rated capacity of 

square feet, and provide same with a set of 

fire and cleaning tools. 

Foundation. The owner is to provide a suitable 
brick or concrete foundation for the boiler. 

Smoke Pipe. Connect the smoke collar of the 
boiler to the chimney flue by a ... .-inch galvan- 
ized iron smoke pipe, provided with a choke 
damper. 

Chimney. The owner is to provide a chimney 
flue of sufficient size and height to seeure a proper 
draught. 

Fittings. The steam main, risers and branches 
to the radiators to be of ample areas and properly 
graded and supported in basement by neat, strong 
hangers, secured to ceiling joists. All fittings to 
be of best grade cast iron, and reducing fittings to 
be used, not bushings. 

75 



76 RADIATION 

F. & C. Plates. Wliere risers and radiator con- 
nections pass through floors and ceilings, protect 
the openings with neat bronzed or nickel-plated 
floor and ceiling plates. 

Valves. Each radiator is to be furnished with 
a nickel-plated wood-wheel Disc Radiator Valve. 

Air Vents. Each radiator to be provided with 
an automatic air valve. 



I 



i 



HOT WATER HEATING. 

The open tank, and the closed tank or pressure 
systems are in general use. 

The open tank system is preferable to the closed 
tank system, as it may be more easily and safely 
operated. 

In the open tank system a vent pipe is carried 
from the expansion tank through the roof or side 
of the building open to the atmospliere. The 
closed tank system is not vented, and is therefore 
under pressure and requires a safety valve. 

In the closed tank system the water may be 
heated to a temperature above 212 degrees, the 
boiling point of the open tank system. 

A safety valve should be placed on the expansion 
tank, with a pipe running from the open side of the 
valve to a sink or drain, in order that when suffi- 
cient pressure is raised to operate the valve, any 
overflow of water may be carried off without in- 
jury to the building. 

Ten pounds is the proper pressure at which the 
safety valve should work on the closed tank sys- 
tem. 

The piping for the closed tank or high pressure 
system may be somewhat smaller than for the open 
tank or low pressure system, but the piping should 

77 



78 HOT WATER HEATING 

be nin and the connections taken off in the same 
manner for each system. 

The mains should be pitched 1 inch for each 10 
feet of length. 

The mains in a hot water system should not be 
reduced too rapidly as branches are taken off, as 
the greater amount of friction in the smaller sizes 
of pipe will cause trouble. 

Eadiators may be heated by hot water on the 
same level as the boiler, or below it. 

Under these conditions the circulation resiilts 
from the weight of water above the low radiators. 
This depends on the fact that a column of water 
2.32 feet in height will produce about 1 pound of 
pressure. 

This may be done by carrying the flow pipe up 
so as to get a pressure from the weight of water 
above, to produce circulation. 

A hot water system should be filled from the 
lowest point if possible, for the reason that the 
water will drive the air out of the system as it 
rises. 

The air vents should all be opened to allow the 
air to escape, being closed as each radiator is com- 
pletely filled with water. 

Round Water Heaters. The heater shown 
in Fig. 43 is entirely of cast iron construc- 
tion, so arranged as to amply provide 
for expansion and contraction. The only 
joints or connections are formed of heavy 



HOT WATER HEATING 



79 



cast iron threaded nipples, making a per- 
fect joint, with no possibility of leaks from any 
cause whatsoever and absolute freedom from all 




Fife 43 



necessity of packing of any kind. The general 
construction of water heaters is as follows: 

The circular base, or ashpit, which also forms 
the support for the grate, is substantially made of 



80 



HOT WATER HEATING 




Fig. 44. 



HOT WATER HEATING 81 

cast iron and gives a safe depth for accumulation 
of aslies. Eesting on this is the firepot section, 
shown in Fig. 44, This section, being one com- 
plete casting in itself, and tested under heavy 
pressure before leaving the shop, is abso- 
lutely free from mechanical imperfections. In 
the center of the top of this section is a large 
opening, threaded to receive a nipple, which con- 
nects it with a closed section, shown in the right 
hand upper view. Fig. 44. This first, or interme- 
diate section, is of less diameter than the top of 
the firepot section. On top of this closed, or in- 
termediate section and attached to it in the same 
manner, as described for the connection of the 
firepot, there is an open section shown in the right 
hand upper view. Fig. 44, which is of the same 
diametei" as the top of the firepot and entirely fills 
the jacket casings hereinafter described. On top 
of this is placed another closed section, and on 
top of this again comes the top section, which is 
either the steam dome, forming the steam boiler, 
or the upper water section, forming the water 
heater, all connected together in the manner de- 
scribed, • with screw nipples, the top section, or 
dome, having the necessary tappings for the sup- 
ply outlets for steam, or the flow outlets for 
water. 

Casings. Extending from the outer edge of the 
top of the firepot section to the top of the upper 
section, or dome, there are cast iron casings, close- 



82 HOT WATER HEATING 

ly fitted joints. These casings are made in seg- 
ments and are intercliangeable and easily applied, 
with no possibility of rusting, wearing out or 
breaking. They form in themselves a, perfect 
chamber for the retention of products of combus- 
tion, compelling these to follow such channels as 
will give best results. 

Firepot. The firepot is circular in form, entire- 
ly surrounded by water, is made in one perfect 
casting, and free from any possible chance of 
leakages. The inner surface of the firepot has 
projecting into it all around the sides a multipli- 
city of iron points, just long enough to prevent 
the water contract from chilling the fire and mak- 
ing it possible to secure perfect combustion and a 
uniform fire around the edges as well as in the 
center. The firepots are of sufficient depth to in- 
sure a deep, slow fire, forming the best and most 
economical heat-producing proposition for low 
pressure heating. 

Grate. The gTate is of the triangular form and 
is at all times easily operated, and in its opera- 
tion it pulverizes all clinkers before depositing 
in ash pit. 

On all the larger size boilers the grates are fit- 
ted with a heavy bearing bar in the center, thus 
prolonging the life of the grate bars, as it pre- 
vents their warping. 

Simplicity of the Grates. The construction of 
the grate is exceedingly simple, and admits of 



HOT WATER HEATING 



83 



any one bar of the whole grate being changed 
without the assistance of skilled labor. 

Fig. 45 shows vertical cross-section of a steam 
boiler. 



(f^ ^ ' 





^ 



J 












45. 



Rectangular Sectional Heaters. The vertical 
sectional type of steam heaters has been on the 
market and in all forms for a number of years. 
There are no new ideas that can be safely exploit- 



84 



HOT WATER HEATING 



ed in this line. Tlie demand is for a simple, prac- 
tical, easily handled device that will absolutely 
endure the work appropriated for it. 
The heater shown in Fig. 46 is strong, of good 



C^3^- 




Fig. 46. 



appearance, thoroughly accessible for cleaning, 
and, so far as can be determined from exterior ap- 
pearances, a most satisfactory heater. The good 
opinion already formed of the heater is further 



HOT WATER HEATING 



85 



strengtliened by reference to views of the inter- 
mediate and rear sections shown in Fig. 47 and 
48. By reference to tliese cuts it will be seen tliat 
every possible advantage is taken of the tire sur- 
face, it being the belief that, unless great good is 




Fig. 47. 



accomplished in direct contact with the fire, there 
will be but little assistance obtained from the 
flues. 

Firepots. Firepots of this type of heaters are 
deep, to give a compact body of fire, and, besides, 



86 



HOT WATER HEATING 



are covered with numbers of iron projections to 
prevent chilling contact of the fire with the ex- 
posed water surface and yet secure such perfect 
combustion as will quickly impart to the water 
the heat from the fuel and permit of maintaining 
at all times a clear, even fire in every portion of 
the firepot. 




Fig. 48. 



Heater Capacity. The capacity of the heater 
should be at least 20 per cent in excess of the total 
duty imposed upon it by the radiation and pipe 
svstem. 



HOT WATER HEATING 87 

Example: Let 600 square feet equal the total 
radiation, plus 25 per cent for the surface of the 
mains, plus 20 per cent excess heater capacity, 
which is 900 square feet, the capacity of the boiler 
required. The same result may be arrived at by 
adding 50 per cent to the radiation. 

When direct-indirect radiation is used, an ad- 
ditional 33 1/3 per cent must be allowed, and 
when indirect radiation is used, add 50 per cent„ 



Example : 

Total direct radiation=450 sq. ft 

One direct-indirect radiator^^ 60 '' 

One indirect radiator^=190 ^' 



600 '' 
25 per cent for surface of mains=112.5 ' ' 
33 1/3 per cent on direct-indirect= 20 ^ ' 
50 per cent on indirect radiator^ 45 ' ' 

777.5 " 
20 per cent excess capacity=155.5 '^ 

Heater capacity 933 ^^ 

Thermometers. A thermometer should be at- 
tached to eveiy water heater as it not only regis- 
ters the temperature of the water but it indicates 
to the attendant the required temperature of the 
water to be maintained for different conditions of 
the weather. It should be located in the top of the 



88 



HOT WATER HEATING 



heater or in the side near the top so that the closed 
brass chambers comes in direct contact with the 



A A> 




Fig 



water circulation. Thermometers for use with 
water heaters are shown in Fig. 49. 

Pipe Systems. The quadruple main hot water 
heating system shown in Fig. 50 when properly 



HOT WATER HEATING 89 

installed will give very satisfactoiy results, and 
on aceonnt of the small size of the mains that are 
required it comes well within the range of the tool 
equipment of a heating contractor. 




Pig. 50. 



The double main system, as shown in Fig. 51, 
consists of flow mains starting from points on top 
of the boiler and ninning horizontally with a pitch 
of 1 inch or more in each 10 feet from the boiler. 



90 



HOT WATER HEATING 




Fig. 51. 



This is a system that is very much used and con- 
sidered by many the best practice to follow. 

The single pipe overhead or down-feed svstem 



HOT WATER HEATING 



91 




Fig. 52. 



92 HOT WATER HEATING 

is much used in large office buildings. As illus- 
trated in Fig. 52 a single feed or supply pipe runs 
from the top of the heater to a point some dis- 
tance above the highest radiator. At this point the 
down-feed pipes branch out to the different sets 
of radiators. The expansion tank is connected to 
the system by a separate pipe at a point near the 
heater as shown. A vent pipe is also placed at the 
top of vertical supply pipe. The expansion tank 
should always be above the highest line of pipe. 

Heating Surface. To estimate the amount of 
heating surface required to heat a room with hot 
water to a, temperature of 70 degrees in zero 
weather, with the water at a temperature of 180 
degrees at the heater and under ordinary condi- 
tions of exposure, the following rule is given, 
which is for direct Tadiation, and based upon the 
glass surface exposed wall surface and cubic space. 

1 square foot of radiation to 1 square foot of 
glass. 

1 square foot of radiation to 10 square feet of 
wall exposed. 

1 square foot radiation to 150 cubic feet of 
spaced. 
For each degree of temperature above or below 
zero, deduct from or add to, 1% per cent of the 
radiation given by this rule. 

Hot Water Mains. The proper size of mains for 
hot water heating are given in the accompanying 
table: 



HOT WATER HEATING 



93 



Proper 


Size of Hot Water Mains. 


Size of Main in Inches. 


Sq. ft. Direct Radiation, 


Y' 


175 
300 


T 


400 
650 


3>^ 


900 
1200 


f^ 


1500 
2000 


6 


2700 


7 


4000 


8 


5500 



Radiator Connections. All radiator connections 
should be of sufficient size to give the best results. 



Tapping of Direct Hot Water Radiators. 


40 

40 to 72 

72 to 100 

100 to 150 


1 X 1 

IX X IX 

1^ X IX 

2 X 2 


Tapping of Direct Hot Water^ Radiators. 
Two Pipe— Two Tappings. 


20 

20 to 40 
40 to 80 
80 to 120 


X X X 
1 X X 
IX X 1 

IX xix 



Example: Required the number of square feet 
of direct radiation for a room 10x10x10 feet, hav- 
ing two exposed sides and two windows 2%x6 
feet. 



94 HOT WATER HEATING 

Answer: 

Glass surface;== 30 sq. ft.^- 1= 30 sq. feet 
Exposed walls= 200 sq. ft.^lO= 20 

Cubic space=l,000 cu. f t.^lO= _6^ ' ' 
Total direct radiation==56.6 ^' 
Example : Eequired the number of square feet 
of direct radiation for the same room, with one 
exposed side and one window 2%x6 feet. 

Answer: 

Glass surfa,cec= 15 sq. ft.-^- 1= 15 sq. feet 

Exposed walls= 100 sq. ft.-^ 10= 6.6 " 

Cubic spacen=l,000 cu. ft.-:-150= 6.6 '' 

Total direct radiation^31.6 ^^ 

When indirect radiation in used 75 per cent 
should be added to the above figures. 



4 



RADIATION. 

Direct Radiation. Tliis consists of a heating 
surface in the form of a radiator or coil, wliicli is 
placed directly in the room to be heated. 

Indirect Radiation. Eadiators in the room to 
be heated on the first or second floor are located 
in the cellar or basement, usually directly under 
the rooms to be heated. There is placed in the 
floor of the room to be heated, or in the side wall 
above the baseboard, a register and connection is 
miade between this register and the radiator in 
the basement by means of tin or sheet iron pipe, 
for conveying the heated air into the room. 

The indirect radiator is placed in a chamber 
into which fresh air is conveyed from outside, and 
to which the hot air flue to the register is con- 
nected. 

The distance from the top of the radiator to 
the ceiling of the casing should be from 10 to 12 
inches and from the bottom of the radiator to the 
bottoj.li of the casing from 6 to 8 inches. The di- 
mensions of the cold air inlet should be IV2 square 
inches for each square foot of indirect radiation. 
The warm air outlet should be 2 square inches for 
each square foot of indirect radiation, which would 
be for a radiator containing 100 square feet of 

95 



96 RADIATION 

radiation, 200 square inclies of cross sectional area, 
or a duct 10x20 inches. The dimensions of the 
warm air register should be 50 per cent larger 
than those of the warm air duct, which allows for 
the contracted area caused by the register face. A 
warm air duct having 200 square inches of cross 
sectional area should have a register approxi- 
mating 300 square inches. 

Direct-Indirect Radiation. This system serves 
a double purpose, that of Direct Radiation and 
Ventilation, and is also placed in the room to be 
heated under windows, or close to the exposed 
walls. 

The lower front part of the radiator is encased, 
having an opening at the bottom or back of the 
base for the introduction of cold air by means of a 
duct through the outside wall of the building. 

On account of the cooling effect of the outside 
air passage between the coils of the radiator, in- 
creased heating surface to the amount of 33 1/3 
per cent must be added toi make it equivalent to 
direct radiation. 

This system, of radiation is seldom used in the 
heating of houses, being more necessary where 
ventilation is required in the heating of public 
buildings and schools. 

Instead of placing all of the radiators at one 
point, it is well to divide it into two or more radi- 
ators, according to the size of the room. As heat- 
ing with steam or hot water is accomplished by the 



RADIATION 97 

turning ot circulation of the air in the room, it is 
well to divide and place the radiation at the most 
exposed points, in order to better heat the room. 

In small houses a radiator placed in the lower 
hall, if sufficiently large, will heat the hall ahove, 
but in large buildings, where the hall space is 
laTge, the upper halls should have radiators placed 
in them. 

Radiators. Heating surfaces are divided into 
three classes: Direct radiation, Indirect radia- 
tion and Direct-indirect radiation. 

Direct radiation covers all radiators placed 
within a room or building to warm the air, and 
are not connected with a system of ventilation. 

The best place within a room to place a single 
radiator, is where the air is cooled, before or under 
the windows, or on the outside walls. When the 
radiator is of vertical tube, or a short coil, which 
can occupy only the space under one window, and 
when, as often occurs, there are three windows, 
the riser should be so placed as to bring the line 
of radiators in front of, and under the windows 
where they will do the most good. When a small 
extra cost is not considered, to use two radiators 
and place one in front of each of the extreme win- 
dows. 

When the room is large and has many windows, 
the heating surface, when composed of radiators, 
should be divided into as many units as possible. 

Indirect radiation embraces all heating surfaces 



98 



RADIATION 



placed outside the rooms to be heated, and can 
only be used in connection with some system of 
ventilation. 




Fig. 53. 



All the heating surface is placed in a chamber, 

and the warmed air distributed through air ducts. 

Figs. 53, 54 and 55 show two, three and four 



RADIATION 



2)9 







"^>4 




Fig. 54. 



100 



RADIATION 



column forms of direct radiators, and Fig. 56 a 
two-piece hall or window direct radiator. 

The indirect radiator is usually boxed, either in 
wood lined with tin, or in galvanized iron. The 




i 



Fig. 55 

former is best when 'the basement is to be kept 
cool, as there is a greater loss by radiation through 
metal cases, otherwise the sheet metal is the best, 
as it will not crack. 

Indirect radiators are usually hung from the 



RADIATION 



101 



ceiling in the basement under the rooms they are 
intended to heat. A cold air duct is carried from 




Fig-. 5G. 



an opening in the outside wall to the stack box. 
This duct must be provided with a damper, and its 




Fig. 57. 



inlet covered on the face of the outside of the wall 
with a wire screen of small mesh. 



102 



RADIATION 




Fig. 58. 



RADIATION 



103 



The box inclosing tlie radiator shown in Figs. 
57 and 58 is made of wood lined with bright tin 
about half-way down. The sides of the box should 
almost touch the hubs of the radiator on both ends, 




so that the cold air coming in through the duct 
will surely find its way up between the sections of 
the radiator, and not around the ends of it. 

The radiator is shown connected for a two-pipe 
hot water system. 

The cold air duct is provided with a slide, so 
that the air may be shut off when it is not wanted, 



104 



EADIATION 



or when the radiator is turned off. The radiator 
should be so hung in the box that the space above 
it is about one-third more than the space below; 
this provides for the expansion of the air after it 
has been warmed by contact with the radiator. 

Brackets for supporting the hall or window 
types of direct radiator are shown in Fig. 59. 




Fig. 60. 

A direct-indirect form of radiator is illustrated 
in Fig. 60, in which the air is taken from the out- 
side of the room to be heated and passes up be- 
tween the sections of the radiator as shown, the 
front of the radiator being encased. 



RADIATION 



105 





Two Column Radiator for Steam 


OR Hot 1 






Water 


Heating. 






No. of 
Sec- 
tions. 


Length 

in 
Inches. 


square feet of heating 


surface. 


45 
Inches 
High. 


38 
Inches 
High. 


32 
Inches 
High. 


26 
Inches 
High. 


23 
Inches 
High. 


20 
Inches 
High, 


2 


5 


10 


8 


61- 


H 


4% 


4 


3 


7X 


15 


12 


10 


8 


7 


6 


4 


10 


20 


16 


13^- 


101 


dVs 


8 


5 


12X 


25 


20 


161 


m 


11% 


10 


6 


15 


30 


24 


20 


16 


14 


12 


7 


17X 


35 


28 


234 


181 


16% 


14 


8 


20 


40 


32 


261 


211 


18% 


16 


9 


22X 


45 


36 


30 


24 


21 


18 


10 


25 


50 


40 


33t 


261 


23K 


20 


11 


27X 


55 


44 


36j 


291 


25% 


22 


12 


30 


60 


48 


40 


32 


28 


24 


13 


32X 


65 


52 


43i 


341 


30% 


26 


14 


35 


70 


56 


461 


37i 


32% 


28 


15 


37X 


75 


60 


50 


40 


35 


30 


16 


40 


80 


64 


53i 


421 


37% 


82 


17 


42% 


85 


68 


561 


451 


39% 


34 


18 


45 


90 


72 


60 


48 


42 


36 


19 


47X 


95 


76 


63i 


501 


44% 


38 


20 


50 


100 


80 


661 


531 


46% 


40 



106 



RADIATION 



Three-Column Radiator for Steam or 


Hot 




Water Heating. 






Number of 
Sections. 


Length in 
Inches. 


square feet of HEATING SURFACE. 1 


39 
Inches 
High. 


33 
Inches. 
High. 


27 
Inches 
High. 


21 
Inches 
High. 


2 


5 


12 


10 1-2 


8 1-2 


6 1-2 


3 


7 1-2 


18 


15 3-4 


12 3-4 


9 3-4 


4 


10 


24 


21 


17 


13 


5 


12 1-2 


30 


26 1-4 


21 1-4 


16 1-4 


6 


15 


36 


311-2 


25 1-2 


19 1-2 


7 


17 1-2 


42 


36 3-4 


29 3-8 


22 3-4 


8 


20 


48 


42 


34 


26 


9 


22 1-2 


54 


47 1-4 


38 1-4 


29 1-4 


10 


25 


60 


52 1-2 


42 1-2 


32 1-2 


11 


27 1-2 


66 


57 3-4 


46 3-4 


35 3-4 


12 


30 


72 


63 


51 


39 


13 


32 1-2 


78 


68 1-4 


55 1-4 


42 1-4 


14 


35 


84 


73 1-2 


59 1-2 


45 1-2 


15 


37 1-2 


90 


78 3-4 


63 3-4 


48 3-4 


16 


40 


96 


84 


68 


52 


17 


42 1-2 


102 


89 1-4 


72 1-4 


55 1-4 


18 


45 


108 


94 1-2 


76 1-2 


58 1-2 


19 


47 1-2 


114 


99 3-4 


80 3-4 


613-4 


20 


50 


120 


105 


85 


65 



RADIATION 



107 



Four-Column R^j 


DIATOR FOR StEAM OR HOT 1 






Water Heating. 






Number 

of 
Sections. 


Length 

in 
Inches. 


SQUARE FEET OF HEATING SURFACE. 1 


42 1-2 
Inches 
High. 


38 1-2 
Inches 
High. 


32 1-2 
Inches 
High. 


26 1-2 
Inches 
High. 


20 1-2 
Inches 
High. 


2 


8 1-2 


19 1-3 


16 


13 1-3 


10 2-3 


8 


3 


12 1-2 


29 


24 


20 


16 


12 


4 


16 1-2 


38 2-3 


32 


26 2-3 


21 1-3 


16 


5 


20 3-4 


48 1-3 


40 


33 1-3 


26 2-3 


20 


6 


24 3-4 


58 


48 


40 


32 


24 


7 


28 3-4 


67 3-3 


56 


46 2-3 


37 1-3 


28 


8 


32 3-4 


77 1-3 


64 


53 1-3 


42 2-3 


32 


9 


37 


87 


72 


60 


48 


36 


10 


41 


96 2-3 


80 


66 2-3 


53 1-3 


40 


11 


45 


106 1-3 


88 


73 1-3 


58 2-3 


44 


12 


49 


116 


96 


80 


64 


48 


13 


53 


125 2-3 


104 


S6 2-3 


69 1-3 


52 


14 


57 1-2 


135 1-3 


112 


93 1-3 


74 2-3 


56 


15 


61 1-2 


145 


120 


100 


80 


60 


16 


65 1-2 


154 2-3 


128 


106 2-3 


85 1-3 


64 


17 


69 1-2 


164 1-3 


136 


113 1-3 


90 2-3 


68 


18 


73 3-4 


172 


144 


120 


96 


72 


19 


77 3-4 


183 2-3 


152 


126 2-3 


101 1-3 


76 


20 


82 


193 1-3 


160 


133 1-3 


106 2-3 


80 



108 



RADIATION 



Radiator Connections. Methods of connecting 
radiators used in water heating plants are shown 
in Fig. 61. 



•'iriwrinnininm 




(fWW^^ 



^jiMJiuw 




Radiator Valves. For use with hot water heat- 
ing systems, angle radiator valves that have a full 
opening for a half turn of the wheel are usually 
employed. They have wood wheel, union connec- 
tion and nickel-plated trimmings. This style of 
valve is illustrated in Figs. 62 and 63. 

Angle valves with or without union connection, 
with wood wheel and nickel-plated trimmings, of 
the disk seat type are also used. They are shown 
in Figs. 64 and 65. 

Gate valves as shown in Figs. 66 and 67 are used 
with down feed or overhead systems or when the 
radiator connections are made above the floor. 



RADIATION 109 

Globe valves as shown in Fig. 68 should not, if 
possible, to do without, be used in hot water heat- 
ing systems, as their use interferes with the free 
circulation of the water. 




Fig. 62. 



A comer valve for use when the radiator con- 
nections are above the floor is shown in Fig. 69; 
they are made both right and left-hand and with 
union connection. 



110 



RADIATION 



A square or flat plug-cock should be always 
placed in the return pipe close to the boiler or in 
the boiler itself, as close to the bottom as possible. 




Fig. 



It should not have any direct connection to the 
sewer, but the discharge end of the pipe should be 
in plain sight so that any leakage due to negli- 



RADIATION 



111 



genco in closing the cock may be quickly seen. 
Fig. 70 shows both square and flat-head plug- 
cocks. 
The union-elbow shown in Fig. 71 is used to 




Fig. 64. 



make the return connection from the radiation to 
the main. Check valves such as shown in Fig. 72 
are sometimes used in the return main of a hot 
water heating system. 



112 RADIATION 

Check Valve. It is well understood that the 
common check valve is a, very poor article when it 
is put to constant work, as it soon becomes pound- 




Fig. 



ed out of the seat, thereby leaking. It also wears 
oblong in consequence of the back pressure com- 
ing against the side of the feather, which back 
pressure prevents the valve from closing promptly, 



RADIATION 



113 



thereby permitting consideralble water to return 
ta the pump. 

The common valves are very much choked by 




Pig. 66. 



the guides, so that not more than two-thirds of 
their area is serviceable. 

The cup pattern valve shown in Fig. 72 has a 



114 



RADIATION 



much larger seat, a larger area, and is so con- 
structed that the back pressure comes on the top 
of valve, thus preventing the side wear of the seat, 
and insuring prompt closing. 




Expansion Tank. The purpose of an expansion 
tank is to provide for the increased bulk of the 
water in a hot water heating system, as water ex- 



RADIATION 115 

pands about one-twentieth of its bulk from 40 to 
212 degrees Fahrenlieit or to the boiling point of 
water. The expansion tank should always be 




Fig. 68. 



placed at the highest point of the system and near 
the ceiling at least 3 or 4 feet above the highest 
radiator or even higher if possible. 



116 



RADIATION 



The expansion tank sliould not require more 
than one or two gallons per month to replenish 
the loss by evaporation. The overflow or vapor 







Fig. 69. 



pipe shonld be carried to the nearest drain. The 
expansion tank shonld never be placed in an ex- 
tremely cold place or an nnheated room if possible. 
A stop-cock or globe-valve should never be placed 
in the pipe leading to the expansion tank. 



RADIATION 



117 



Tlie expansion tank should be located in a -wann 
room, to prevent freezing. 





Fig. 70. 

Tlie overflow from the expansion tank should 
be carried through the roof, and on the end of the 




pipe a return bend should be placed, in order that 

the water may not run down the side of the pipe. 

The expansion tank should hold from 1-20 to 



118 



RADIATION 



1-30 of the amount of water contained in the entire 
system. 

For the reason that when at the boiling point, 
the water in the system will occupy a considerably 
larger space than when cold. 

At its boiling point, water fills a space about 5 




Fig. 72. 

per cent, greater in volume than at its densest 
point, when cold. When cold, the water must fill 
the entire system. Therefore provision must be 
made to take care of this extra volume when the 
water is at the boiling point. 

The expansion tank is provided for this purpose 
on all hot water heating systems. 



RADIATION 



11^ 



When a wooden lead-lined tank is used and tt^ 
water supply can be obtained from the city water 
main, a float device replenishes the water automa- 
tically. 




Fig. 73. 



If there be no water pressure available the tank 
must be filled by hand through a funnel. 

A galvanized steel expansion tank is shown in 
Fig. 73. The overflow pipe, vent and water sup- 
ply openings are all clearly shown. 



12U 



RADIATION 




Pig. 74. 



A water gauge for use on an expansion tank is 
illustrated in Fig, 74. 



HOT WATER HEATING 



121 



Capacity of Expansion Tanks. 1 


No. 


Diam. in 


Capacity 


Sq. Ft. of 


No. 


Diam. in 


Capacity 


Sq. Ft. of 


Inches. 


Gallons. 


Radiation. 


Inches. 


Gallons. 


Radiation. 





16 


8 


250 


5 


31 


32 


1,300 


1 


17i 


10 


300 


6 


32 


42 


2,000 


2 


20 


15 


500 


7 


37 


66 


3,000 


3 


23 


20 


700 


8 


39 


82 


5,000 


4 


25 


26 


950 


9 


40 


100 


6,000 



Altitude Gauge. Tlie gauge sliown in Fig. 75 
denotes the height of a column of water in a, reser- 




Fig. 75. 



voir or tank used in connection with heating or 
wherever it is desired. 

The adjustable hand indicates the number of 



122 HOT WATER HEATING 

feet in lieiglit at wliicli the water sliooild be con- 
stant in the reservoir, and is so set by the user 
when the gage is put up. 

The hand operated by the gauge tube spring, 
which the pressure of the column of water actu- 
ates, shows in graduations on the dial marked in 
feet the actual height of water in the tank or re- 
servioT and consequently the fluctuations in the 
height of water due to its use, and thus enables 
the user instantly to know whether the water 
column is of the required and proper height to 
be maintained. It is of great service and useful- 
ness in this respect. 

The gauge has two dials, the red one being 
moveable only by hand, the black one being con- 
nected with the mechanism of the gauge. When 
the system is first filled to the required height, the 
spring dial of the gauge shows the height in feet 
of the water in the system. The face of the gauge 
is then taken off, and the red dial moved to a point 
directly under the spring dial, and pointing to the 
same number on the gauge. As the water in tliQ 
system evaporates by use, the spring dial drops 
away from the red dial, indicating less water in 
the system. 

By the use of an altitude gauge at the boiler, the 
necessity of watching the expansion tank to know 
the amount of water in it, is avoided, as the gauge 
at the boiler registers the height of water in feet 
in the system. 



HOT WATER HEATING 



123 



Approxiimate Radiating Surface To Cubic 
Capacities of Space to be Heated. 


One Square Foot 

of Radiating 
Surface will Heat. 


cubic FEET OF AIR. 1 


In Dwellings, 

School-Rooms 

and Offices. 


In Halls. Lofts, 
Stores and 
Factories. 


In Churches and 
Large Audi- 
toriums. 


With direct 
hot-water radi- 
ating surface. 

With indirect 
hot-water radi- 
ation. 

With direct 
hot-water radi- 
ating surface. 

With indirect 
hot-water radi- 
ation. 


30 to 50 
15 to 35 
50 to 80 
40 to 50 


60 to 80 
20 to 45 
70 to 100 
55 to 75 


90 to 150 
60 to 100 
160 to 250 
100 to 150 



Starting a hot water heating plant. The expan- 
sion tank should always be placed in position at 
the same time as the radiators. 

After the system is erected and all connections 
made, each radiator valve should be packed. The 
air valves should be attached to the radiators, and 
should be shut off, preparatory to filling the sys- 
tem with water. 

When either or both a hot-water thermometer 
or altitude gauge are to be used they should be at- 
tached at this time, provision being made for con- 
necting them when erecting the mains. 



124 HOT WATER HEATING 

Fill the system with water slowly until the 
heater and mains are full. If any leaks are discov- 




Fig. 76.— Basement. 

ered, but not serious, continue to fill the system 
with water until the water can be drawn freely 
from the air valves on the first floor radiators. 



HOT WATER HEATING 



125 



Open all the radiator valves and start a slow 
fire, and when the system is tight, raise the tem- 




Fig. 77. -First Floor. 



perature of the water to the hoiling point, or 212 
degrees Fahrenheit which should be easily done if 
all conditions are right. 



126 



HOT WATER HEATING 



After a day's test the fire should be let out, and 
the entire system drained, and all leaks that have 




Fig. 78 —Second Floor. 



been discovered repaired, when the system should 
be refilled with fresh water. 
Hot water heating plant. The following illus- 



HOT WATER HEATING 127 

trations shown in Figs. 76, 77 and 78 are the plans 
for a nine room house, heated by a. double-main 
hot water system. The boiler, water, mains, pip- 
ing to radiators, and the radiators are all plainly 
shown. 



SPECIFICATIONS AND CONTRACT FOR A 
HCT WATER HEATING PLANT. 

We hereby agree to furnish and install in your 
residence, Street, a Eot Water Heat- 
ing Plant under the conditions, and for the price 
hereinafter named, and in accordance with the 
following specifications: 

Boiler— To provide and set up in basement one 
No Hot Water Boiler, having a rated capa- 
city of square feet, and furnished with a 

set of fire and cleaning tools. 

Foundation— The owner is to provide a suitable 
foundation for the boiler of brick or concrete. 

Smoke Pipe— The smoke collar of the boiler to 
be connected to the chimney flue by a . . inch gal- 
vanized iron smoke pipe, closely fitted and provid- 
ed with a choke damper. 

Chimney— The owner shall provide a chimney 
flue of proper size and height tO' secure sufficient 
draft. 

Fittings— The mains, risers and branches to be 
of ample area, properly graded. The mains to be 



128 HOT WATER HEATING 

supported in the basement by neat, strong hangers, 
secured to ceiling joists. All fittings to be of best 
grade cast iron to be used. 

Floor and Ceiling Plates— Where risers and 
radiator connections pass through floors and ceil- 
ings, place bronzed or nickel-plated floor and ceil- 
ing plates. 

Valves— Each radiator to be furnished with a 
nickel-plated wood-wheel, quick opening radiator 
valve. 

Union Ells— The return end of each radiator to 
be provided with a nickel-plated elbow, with union 
coupling. 

Air Vents— Each radiator to be furnished with 
a nickel-plated air valve, with key or wood-wheel. 

Water Supply— The owner is to provide a con- 
nection in the water service pipe, near the boiler, 
for the water supply. 

Expansion Tank— Provide and place in proper 
position a heavy galvanized iron expansion tank, 
complete with water gauge. 

Altitude Gauge— Furnish and attach in proper 
position on boiler one 5-inch Altitude Gauge with 
stop cock. 



Estimating. Make a careful survey of the loca- 
tion, constmctioii and exposure of the building to 
be heated, and take accurate measurements of the 
size of the glass surface and exposed walls of the 
rooms in which the radiators are to be placed. 

Having ascertained the total amount of radia- 
tion, select a heater having a rated capacity of 50 
per cent in excess of the total radiation, which for 
the average system will allow for the duty imposed 
by the mains and provide a margin of 20 per cent. 

Make a plan of the basement to scale, locate the 
heater, and lay out the pipe system, putting down 
the size of the mains and the branches. 

From the plan obtain the number of lineal feet 
of each size of pipe, including the risers, also the 
number and size of all fittings. 

Allow one air valve for each radiator. 

The number and size of the floor and ceiling 
plates may be counted from the number and size 
of risers that will pass through the floors and the 
ceilings. 

The length of pipe covering may be obtained 
from the size and number of lineal feet of pipe in 
the mains. 

Smoke Pipes. Steam boiler smoke pipes range 
in size from about 8 inches in the smaller sizes 
to 10 or 12 inches in the larger ones. They are 

129 



130 HOT WATER HEATING 

generally made of galvanized iron. Tlhe pipe 
should be carried to the chimney as directly as 
possible, avoiding bends, which increase the re- 
sistance and diminish the draft. When the draft 
is known to be good the smoke pipe may pur- 
posely be made longer to allow the gases to part 
with more of their heat before reaching the chim- 
ney. Where a smoke pipe passes through a parti- 
tion it should be protected by a double perforated 
metal collar at least 6 inches greater in diameter 
than the pipe. 

The top of the smoke pipe should not be placed 
within 8 inches of exposed beams nor less than 6 
inches under beams protected by asbestos or plas- 
ter. The connection between the smoke pipes and 
the chimney frequently becomes loose, allowing 
cold air to be drawn in, thus diminishing the 
draft. A collar to make the connection tight 
should be riveted to the pipe about 5 inches from 
the end, to prevent its being pushed too far into 
the flue. 

Chimney Flues. Flues, if built of brick, should 
have walls 8 inches in thickness, unless terra cotta 
linings are used, when only 4 inches of brick work 
is required. Except in small houses, where an 
8x8 flue may be used, the nominal size of the 
smoke flue should be at least 8x12, to allow a 
margin for possible contractions at offsets, or for 
a thick coating of mortar. A clean out door should 
be placed at the bottom. A square flue cannot be 



HOT WATER HEATING 



131 



reckoned at its full area, as the comers are of lit- 
tle value. An 8x8 flue is practically very little 
more effective than one of circular form 8 inches 
in diameter. To avoid down drafts the top of 
the chimney should be carried above the highest 

Dimensions of Chimney Flues for Given Amounts of Direct 
Radiation 



Square Feet of 


Diameter of 


Square or 


Steam Radiation 


Round Flue 


Rectangular Flue 


250 


8 inches 


8 in. X 8 in. 


300 


8 inches 


8 in. X 8 in. 


400 


8 inches 


8 in. X 8 in. 


500 


10 inches 


8 in. X 12 in. 


600 


10 inches 


8 in. X 12 in. 


700 


10 inches 


8 in. X 12 in. 


800 


12 inches 


12 in. X 12 in. 


900 


12 inches 


12 in. X 12 in. 


1000 


12 inches 


12 in. X 12 in. 


1200 


12 inches 


12 in. X 12 in. 


1400 


14 inches 


12 in. X 16 in. 


1600 


14 inches 


12 in. X 16 in. 


1800 


14 inches 


12 in. X 16 in. 


2000 


14 inches 


12 in. X 16 in. 


2200 


16 inches 


16 in. X 16 in. 


3000 


16 inches 


16 in. X 16 in. 


3500 


18 inches 


16 in. X 20 in. 


5000 


18 inches 


16 in. X 20 in. 



point of the roof, unless provided with a suitable 
top or hood. 

Fuel Combustion. Combustion is one form of 
chemical action, accompanied by the generation 
of heat. When such action takes place slowly the 
heat produced is almost imperceptible, but when 
it takes place rapidly, as in the burning of wood, 



132 HOT WATER HEATING 

coal, etc., the heat becomes intense. In the burn- 
ing of ordinary fnel, the carbon and hydrogen of 
the coal combine with the oxygen of the air and 
produce combustion, without which no material 
results may be obtained from the fuel. 

Combustion depends upon the presence of oxy- 
gen, without which it cannot take place. 

Combustion is estimated by the number of 
pounds of fuel consumed per hour by one square 
foot of grate surface. 

One square foot of grate will consume about 5 
pounds of hard coal per hour, or about 10 pounds 
of soft coal, under a natural draft. 

For 7% to 10 pounds of coal consumed, one 
cubic foot of water will be evaporated. 

A fire of a depth of 12 inches will do more ef- 
ficient work than one of less depth. 

The use of too large coal is attended with large 
air spaces between the pieces, and this large 
amount of air is too great for the gases escaping 
from the combustion of the coal, allowing the 
gases to escape into the chimney flue unbumed. 

The use of too small coal is not advisable, as it 
packs down so compactly as to prevent the admis- 
sion of the proper amount of air through the grate 
to prcduce good combustion. 



FURNACE HEATING. 

Furnace Heating. Since 1 square foot of glass 
will transmit about 85 heat units per hour when 
the difference between the inside and outside tem- 
perature is 70 degrees, to ascertain the total loss of 
heat by transmission multiply the exposed glass 
surface by 85. 

If the air enters through the register at 140 de- 
grees, under zero conditions, it is plain that one- 
half the heat supplied is carried away by the air 
escaping at 70 degrees the other half being lost 
through the walls and windows. Therefore, twice 
the amount of heat lost by transmission must be 
supplied by the furnace. 

As 8000 heat units are utilized per pound of 
coal burned in a well proportioned house heating 
furnace, with a maximum coal consumption of 5 
pounds per square foot of grate surface per hour 
there are consequently 8000x5=40,000 heat units 
per hour per square foot of grate surface trans- 
mitted to the air passing through the furnace. Di- 
viding the total loss of heat per hour (that is the 
total exposure in terms of the exposed glass sur- 
face) by 40,000 will give the required grate surface 
in square feet, from which the diameter of the fire 
pot in inches may be readily determined. 

133 



134 FURNACE HEATING 

That is: Total Exposure X 170 

40,000 

Total Exposure . , 

= ■ ^^ = required grate surface. 

Furnaces. In the furnace shown in the illustra- 
tion at Fig. 79 the combustion drum from top to 
bottom consists of one sheet of steel, its seams be- 
ing riveted until gas-tight so that where the sheet 
is lapped it is practically welded. The same gas- 
tight workmanship is maintained in the extra rad- 
iating drum and in the furnace throughout. Gas 
cannot get through the heating surface at any 
point. The material used is of the best quality low- 
carbon, steel plate, a metal that is uniform in tex- 
ture and composition, and anti-corrosive, ductile, 
and possessed of a tensile strength of 60,000 
pounds to the square inch. In a cold state it may 
be worked almost as copper plate may be, it may 
be flanged, double-seamed, twisted, drawn out, 
doubled up, and welded and the process may be 
continually repeated. A piece one-fourth of an 
inch thick may be drawn as thin as a piece of writ- 
ing paper without cracking or checking. Con- 
taining less than one-fourth of one per cent, of 
carbon, mild in quality and homogenous in struc- 
ture, it is absolutely impermeable tO' gases, and 
having a, uniform expansive quality throughout 
its entire mass, it has neither fibre to tear nor sand 
to drop, as is the case in cast metals. 

It may be said of the ordinary furnace that fuel 



FURNACE HEATING 135 

is put in at tlie door and heat let out at the smoke 
hole— let out either as soot and gases that have not 



Fig. 79. 



"been ignited, or as heat that must be wasted 
through the flue, because efforts to retain it would 



136 FURNACE HEATING 

cause a, clioking of the smoke-passage. In other 
words, it has a practically direct draft because of 
its imperfect system of fuel combustion. 

This is really a double furnace. Combustion 
takes place in the first, or fire drum, which in it- 
self possesses a very great radiating surface. 
From this, before reaching the smoke outlet, the 
products of combustion have to enter and travel a 
long distance through the second drum. This 
drum, by actual measurement, contains more heat- 
ing surface than some of the heaters upon the mar- 
ket contain altogether. This supplementary'' drum 
is made in two forms^ — crescent shape and round, 
the latter with an open center. The course of the 
products of combustion being such that heat is 
brought directly against every part of the inside 
of the surface, while the air passes against every 
part of the outside-, so that there is not only long 
retention of the heat inside, but an effective use 
of it by contact with the air from the outside. A 
question always arising in the mind that whether 
or not, with such a long and indirect passage way, 
there will not be choking or clogging. There will 
not be. Herein is where the effective combustion 
is demonstrated. With a good smoke flue and with 
ordina,ry good care, this drum will not require 
cleaning oftener than once a year. More than this, 
the heating surface will remain practically free 
from soot-coating, so that it is always effective for 
service. 



FURNACE HEATING 



13' 



Fig. 80 is a partial sectional elevation of the fur- 
nace previously described, while Fig 81 shows 




Fig. 80. 



the same furnace with a water heating device 
which forms a portion of the fire pot as shown. 



138 



FURNACE HEATING 



The water-back itself is shown in Fig. 82. An en- 
cased type of furnace with additional drum also 




Fig. 81. 



built in with the furnace proper is shown in Fig. 
83. A water tank for furnishing hot water is also 



FURNACE HEATING 



139 



provided as shown in the illustration. Check 
draft dampers for controlling the temperature of 
the furnace are shown in Fig. 84. 

General instructions. To ohtain proper results 
and to convey all the warm air that a furnace may 
produce, to the rooms to be heated, the following 
rules should be observed: 





Fig. 82. 

Put in a furnace of sufficient capacity. 

See that the chimney is of proper size and has 
good draught. 

If possible set the furnace under the center of 
the house, so as to equalize the length of the hot 
air pipes. 



140 



FURNACE HEATING 



Hot air pipes should be of the proper size, witli 
a good elevation from the furnace to the register, 
avoiding long runs and abrupt turns. 




Fig. 83, 

The cold air pipe, if taken from the living room, 
should be at least 85 per cent of the combined 
area of all the hot air pipes. 

All holes or openings in the foundation must be 
closed to prevent the hot air from being chilled. 



FURNACE HEATING 141 

Good workmanship and practical application of 
the same always insures good results. 
Proper Size of the Furnace. Some furnaces are 




Fig. 84. 



rated far ahove the amount of their actual heating 
capacities. Combining this with the fact that some 
dealers expect to sell a consumer only one furnace, 



142 FURNACE HEATING 

and therefore consider only the first profit and pay 
little attention to results, has led to the general de- 
mand of the prospective bnyer to ask for a fur- 
nace of one or two sizes larger than the one figured 
on. 

The tahle of capacities of furnaces are based on 
scientific figures and years of actual test and ex- 
pcTience. Under reasonable conditions a furnace 
selected aecording to this rating will heat the 
building to the proper temperature. 

Proper Size of the Chimney. The chimney 
should start from the floor of the cellar so as to 
allow for a clean out underneath the smoke pipe. 
It should continue in a straight line to at least 2 
feet above the highest point of the roof, if neces- 
sary to offset, care should be taken not to contract 
the size, a 10 inch round or an 8 by 12 inch square 
is a good flue for almost any size of furnace. For 
a small furnace a straight chimney, with an 8 by 
8 inch flue will answer the purpose. 

A chimney 4 inches wide will seldom give sat- 
isfaction. As a great deal depends on a, good chim- 
ney, this very important feature should never be 
overlooked. 

Location of the Furnace. There may be condi- 
tions that make it impractical to set the furnace 
under the center of the house, but the best results 
are always obtained when it is possible to do so. 
if it be necessary to set the furnace toward one 
end of building, it is best to favor the north 



FURNACE HEATING 143 

and west. Drainage conditions often govern the 
depth of cellar. If possible it should be at least 7 
feet under the joists. 

Hot Air Pipes. There is no rule that would ap- 
ply to the size of the pipe for certain rooms. The 
location of the furnace, the length of the pipes and 
the exposure of the rooms, also their use must be 
taken into consideration. Ordinarily 8 and 9 inch 
pipes are large enough for all second and third 
floor rooms. For first floor rooms, a reception hall 
with open stairway tO' second floor, a 12 inch pipe 
is the best adapted, but 10 inch may answer the 
purpose in most cases. For parlor, dining and sit- 
ting rooms of about 12 by 16 feet or 14 by 15 feet 
a 10 inch pipe will give good results, 8 and 9 inch 
should be used for bed rooms. If possible, avoid 
any bends or turns except an elbow at the furnace 
and another where it enters the register box or 
boot. A damper should be put in every hot air 
pipe close to surface. 

All hot air pipes in the cellar should be covered 
with asbestos. This insures better heating, pre- 
serv'-es the pipes and makes them absolutely safe. 

Partition Pipes. Use of double pipes is advo- 
cated as the flow of air through them is better 
than if single pipes are used. The reason for this 
is that with the patented double pipes, the inside 
pipe has a straight, smooth surface, it does not 
buckle or warp, thereby reducing its size, but al- 
ways retains an even and unobstructed passage 



144 FURNACE HEATING 

from the boot at the bottom to the register head 
OT top. 

The outside pipe prevents the inner one from be- 
coming chilled, and also prevents any danger of 
setting fire to the woodworl^ by becoming over- 
heated. 

Cold Air. This is a very important feature, as 
an insufficient supply of cold air to the furnace 
means a lack of warm air in the house. There are 
different opinions as to the proper place to take 
cold air from, whether from the outside, from the 
living rooms, or from the cellar. If taken from the 
outside, the expansion of air is greater than if 
taken from the house. A smaller pipe can be used, 
and therefore costs less to install. The outside air 
being often very cold, it requires heavy firing to 
heat it to the required temperature. With good 
firing satisfactory results can be obtained, but 
with a low fire cold air may be admitted into the 
house without being properly warmed. 

By taking air from the living rooms, the house 
can be heated at a minimum cost of fuel, the ex- 
pense of installation is slightly higher, as it re- 
quires a larger pipe, also register faces and other 
fittings to connect the furnace. By using this meth- 
od, either one or more pipes can be used. The 
area of this pipe or pipes should never be less than 
85 per cent of the combined area of all the hot 
air pipes. 

The best general results are obtained in this 



FURNACE HEATING 



145 



way, for there is always a circulation, the air is 
taken out of the rooms, passed over the heated 
surface of the furnace, and warmed to the proper 
temperature. 

There is only one item in favor of using cellar 
air, this is the expense of installation, as it costs 
very little to make the connection— in all other re- 
spects it is not advisable to use it. 

Openings in Foundation. Great care should be 
exercised to see that all openings in the basement 
or foundation walls are properly closed during the 
cold season, as a current of cold air against any 
hot air pipes, acts as a damper to the proper flow 
of air through them. 

Good Workmanship. Much depends upon a 
furnace being properly installed; it is often said 
that a poor furnace properly installed will give 
better satisfaction than a good furnace poorly put 
in. 



Dimensions and Heating Capacities of Furnaces. 



No. 



24 
28 
30 
33 
36 



Height. 



Ft, In. 

4—6 

4—10 

5—0 

5—0 

5—2 



Diam. 



Ft. In. 

2-0 
2—4 
2—6 
2—9 
3-0 



Height 
of Ra- 
idator. 



Ft. In. 
2-0 
2—4 
2—6 
2—9 
3-0 



Height I Diam. 
of Cast- of Cast- Weight 
ing. ing. 



Ft. In. 

4—11 

5—2 
5—7 
5—7 
5—8 



Ft. In. 

4—2 
4—4 
4—8 
5-0 
5—8 



1200 
1250 
1450 
1750 
1950 



Heating Capacity. 



Cubic Feet. 

9000 to 80000 
12000 to 25000 
20000 to 35000 
30000 to 50000 
60000 to 80000 



146 



FURNACE HEATING 



The Loss of Heat by Transmission with A Difference | 


OF 70 Degrees Fahrenheit Between 


THE 


Indoor 


AND THE Outside Temperature. 




The loss in heat units per square foot per 


hour by trans- | 


mission for: 






8-inch brick wall. 




82 


12-inch brick wall. 




22 


16-inch brick wall. 




18 


20-inch brick wall. 




16 


24-inch brick wall. 




14 


Single window. 




85 


Ceiling (unheated attic). 




5 


Floor (unheated basement). 




4 



Wind Velocity. 


Wind. 


Feet per Minute. 


Miles per Hour. 


Scarcely appreciable 


90 


1.02 


Very feeble 


180 


2.04 


Feeble 


360 


4.1 


Brisk 


1080 


12.3 


Very brisk 


1800 


20.4 


High 


2700 


80.7 


Very high 


3600 


40.1 


Violent 


4200 to 5400 


47.8 to 61.4 


Hurricane 


6000 


68.1 



The United States Weather Bureau defines a gale as a wind 
blowing 40 miles per hour. 



FURNACE HEATING 



147 



Table Showing the Proper Size of Furnace Pipes 

TO Heat Rooms of Various Dimensions When 

Two Sides Are Exposed. 

Temperature at Register 140 degrees, Room 70 degrees, 
Outside degrees. Rooms 8 to 17 Feet in Width Assumed 
to be 9 Feet High. Rooms 18 to 20 Feet in Width Assumed 
to be 10 Feet High. For Other Heights, Temperatures or 
Exposures Make a Suitable Allowance. When First-Floor 
Pipes are longer than 15 feet use one size larger than 
that stated. 




Length of Room. 1 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 

7 
8 


13 


14 


15 


16 


1 

o 


8 


7 
8 


7 
8 


7 
8 


7 
8 


7 

8 


8 
9 


8 
9 

8 
9 


8 
9 

8 
9 


9 




7 
8 


7 
8 


7 
8 


7 
8 


8 
9 


8 
9 


10 






7 
8 


7 
8 

8 
9 


8 
9 


8 
9 


8 
9 


8 
9 


8 
10 


11 






8 
9 


8 
9 


8 
9 


8 
10 


8 
10 


12 










8 
9 


8 
9 


8 
10 


8; 8 
10 1 10 


13 












8 
10 


8 
10 


8 
10 


9 
19 


14 








8 
10 


9 
10 


9 
10 


15 
















9 
10 


9 
11 

y 
11 


16 

















One 
One 
One 
One 
One 
One 



12-inch pipe 
13-inch pipe 
14-inch pipe 
15-inch pipe 
16-inch pipe 
17-inch pipe 



= two 9-inch pipes. 
= two 10-inch pipes. 
= two 11-inch pipes. 
= two 12-inch pipes. 
= two 12-inch pipes, 
= two 13-inch pipes. 



148 



FURNACE HEATING 



In the space opposite the numbers indicating tne length 
and width of room, the lower number shows the size pipe for 
the first floor, the upper number the size pipe for second floor. 

For third floor use one size smaller than for second floor. 

For rooms with three exposures increase pipe given in table 
in proportion to exposure. 

For halls use pipe of ample size to allow for loss of heat to 
second floor. 



The Approximate Velocity of Air in Flues op 


Various Heights. 


Outside temperature 32 degrees Fahrenheit. Allowance 


for friction 50 per cent, in flue one square foot in area. 


Height 


Excess of temperature of air in the flue over that out doors 1 
























of flue 
in Feet. 


10^ 


20^^ 


30° 40^ 


50° 


60° 


70° 


80° 


90° 


100^ 


120° 


140° 1 


Velocity of air in feet per minute. 1 


5 


1 1 

771111136 


159 


179 


199 


216 


234 


250 


266 


296 


325 


10 


109 156 192 


226 


254 


281 


306 


330 


354 


376 


418 


460 


15 


133 192 236 


275 


312 


344 


376 


405 


432 


461 


513 


565 


20 


154 221:273 


319 


359 


398 


434 


467 


500 


532 


592 


650 


25 


173 248 '305 


357 


402 


445 


485 


522 


560 


595 


660 


728 


80 


1892711334 


390 


440 


487 


530 


572 


612 


652 


725 


798 


35 


204 293,360 


423 


475 


527 


574 


620 


662 


705 


783 


862 


40 


218 311386 


452 


508 


562 


612 


662 


707 


753 


836 


920 


45 


231332 408 


478 


538 


597 


650 


700 


750 


800 


887 


977 


50 


244 350 432 


503 


568 


630 


685 


740 


790 


843 


935 


1030 


60 


267383473 


552 


622 


690 


750 


810 


865 


923 


1023 


1125 


70 


289413 510 


596 


671 


746 


810 


875 


935 


995 


1105 


1215 


80 


308 443 545 


638 


717 


795 


867 


935 


1000 1065 


1182 


1300 


90 


327470 578 


678 


762 


845 


920 ■ 990 


106011130 1252 


1380 


100 


345 


495 610 


713 


802 


890 


970 1045 
1 


1118 1190 


1323 


1455 



The volume of air in cubic feet per minute dis- 
cliarged by a flue equals the velocity in feet per 
minute multiplied by the area in square feet. 



FURNACE HEATING 



149 



Knowing any t^vo of these terms, tlie third may be 
readily found. 

volume volume 

Velocity = Area = 

area. velocity. 

Example. — Find the area of a flue 20 feet high 
that will discharge 3,000 cubic feet per minute^ 
when the excess of temperature in the flue over 
that out doors is 40 degrees. 

Opposite 20 in left hand column and under 40 
on upper line is the number 319, representing the 
velocity in feet per minute. The volume 3,000-^319 
= 9.4 square feet, the required area. In estimating 
the effective height of a warm air flue from a fur- 
nace, consider the flue to begin 2 feet above the 
grate. 



The Capacity of Furnaces to Maintain an Inside 


Te^iperature oe 70 Degrees with an Outside 


Temperature of Degrees. 


Temperature of entering air, 140 degrees. Kate of com- 


bustion, 5 pounds of coal per square foot of grate surface 


per hour. 


Average diameter of 
fire pot in inches. 


Corresponding arer 
in square feet. 


Total exposure in square 

feet to which furnace 

is adapted. 


18 


1.77 


1,110 


20 . 


2.18 


1,370 


22 


2.64 


1,655 


24 


3.14 


1,970 


26 


3.69 


2,310 


28 


4.27 


2,680 


80 


4.91 


3,080 


32 


5.58 


3,500 



STEAM AND GAS FITTING. 

The Expansion of Wrought-Iron Steam and 
Water Pipes. To calculate the amount of expan- 
sion in the length of pipes, with different tempera- 
tures, take a pipe 100 feet long, containing cold 
water, or without either steam or water, and being 
at a temperature of ahout 32 degrees Fahrenheit. 
After heating the water in the pipe to 215 degrees, 
or 1 pound pressure of steam, the pipe will be 
found to be 100 feet 1% inches in length, with a 
rise in temperature from 32 degrees to 265 degrees, 
or 25 pounds pressure of steam, there will be an in- 
crease in length of 1 8/10 inches. From 32 dcigrees 
to 297 degrees, or 50 pounds steam pressure, the 
increase would be 2 1/10 inches. And again, a rise 
in temperature from 32 degrees to 338 degrees, or 
100 pounds pressure of steam, will give an increase 
in length of 2% inches. 

Wrought Iron Pipe. Wrought iron pipe is now 
almost exclusively used in heating plants. It is 
made at a number of factories, and being of stan- 
dard sizes, pipe bought from different factories 
will be found to fit the same size of fittings. 

It is manufactured from wrought iron of the 
proper gauge, which is rolled into the shape of the 
pipe and raised to a welding heat, after which the 

150 



STEAM AND GAS FITTING 



151 



edges are welded by being drawn tlirough a die. 
Tlie small sizes of pipe up to 1% inclies are butt 
welded and 1% inches and larger sizes are lap 
welded. 





Fig. 85. 



Fittings. Pipe fittings can be bongbt from the 
Tegular supply bouses. 




Fig. 




Fittings are mostly of cast and malleable iron, 
except straight couplings, wliicli are usually of 
wrought iron. Elbows, tees and other fittings, 



152 STEAM AND GAS FITTING 

wliicli can be procured of cast iron, are the best to 
use, owing to the fact that being of a harder metal 
than the pipe, and less elastic, they will not yield 





Fig. 87. 



sufficiently to cause leakage when connections are 
made. All fittings should be closely examined for 
flaws before screwing on to the pipe. 





Standard cast iron fittings for use in installing 
steam and hot water heating plants are shown in 
Figs. 85, 86, 87 and 88. 

Pipe Bends. The radius of any bend should not 



STEAM AND GAS FITTING 



153 



be less than 5 diameters of the pipe and a larger, 
radius is much preferable. The length X of 




QUARTER BENDS 



U BENDS 




OFFSET BENDS 

Fig. 89. 



straight pipe shown in Fig. 89 at eaeh end of 
bend should be not less than as follows: 



2y2-inch Pipe X= 

3 -inch Pipe X= 
3y2-inch Pipe X^ 

4 -inch Pipe X= 
4%-inch Pipe X= 

5 -inch Pipe X= 



4 inches, 
-4 inches, 
=5 inches, 
:5 inches, 
6 inches, 
-6 inches. 



154 



STEAM AND GAS FITTING 



6 -incli 
7-mch 
8-incli 
lO-incli 
12-inch 
14-incli 
15-incli 
16-iiicli 
18-inch 



Pipe X= 

Pipe X:: 

Pipe X. 
Pipe X= 
Pipe X^ 
Pipe X= 
Pipe X. 
Pipe X= 
Pipe X= 



=7 inches, 
=8 inches, 
=9 inches, 
=12 inches, 
=14 inches, 
=16 inches, 
=16 inches, 
=20 inches, 
=22 inches. 



Pipe Machines. The illustrations in Fig. 90 
show two portable pipe- threading machines which 
are compact, moderate in cost, and efficient. For 





Fig. 90. 

the larger' sizes of pipe, covering a range of from 
2% to 4 inches they will be found time-saving and 
convenient devices. 

Tools. The tools shown in Figs. 91 and 92 will 
be found sufficient to meet the ordinary require- 
ments for installing a steam or hot-water heating 






STEAM AND GAS FITTING 



155 






Fig. 91. 



156 



STEAM AND GAS FITTING 




Fig. 92. 



STEAM AND GAS FITTING 



157 



plant of ordinaiy size. Tlie mains of larger size 
than 2 inches may be ordered cut to measurement. 
The contractor should provide himself with two 
pipe vises as shown in Fig. 93, having a range 
of capacity from 2% up to 4 inches inclusive. Such 
machines can be purchased at a very moderate 
cost. 




Fig. 93. 



Gas Fitting. While electricity is making won- 
derful progress and particularly for lighting, still 
gas holds its own for domestic purposes. Illumin- 
ating gas is not entirely perfect, but when it is 
properly made, carefully delivered to the building 
and there properly handled, the results are so sat- 
isfactory^ that some time will elapse before any- 
thing else will take its place. The average house 



158 STEAM AND GAS FITTING 

is fitted for the use of gas, and the field of discov- 
ery in the use of gas for domestic purposes ap- 
pears to be as great as that of electricity. 

Gas Supply Pipe. The gas supply pipe should 
be connected to the main in the best possible man- 
ner. The pipe should be wrought iron, with fit- 
tings, if any, of malleable or wrought iron. Cast- 
iron fittings should not be used as they crack eas- 
ily. The service pipe should be laid with an in- 
cline to the main in the street, as the earth which 
surrounds the pipe being cold causes some of the 
gas to condense and become liquid. With a fall in 
the supply pipe to the street the condensation can 
therefore flow back into the main pipe. 

With the supply pipe laid in this way there will 
be no flickering of the gas or any unsteady pres- 
sure. 

The gas supply pipe from the street main should 
never be less than one-inch pipe. The meter con- 
nection pipes should always be of one size larger 
than the meter couplings. All drops should be not 
less than %-inch pipe. 

Street Supply Pipe. It is necessary to have the 
house supply pipe rest on a solid foundation. It 
often happens that in excavating the trench for 
the supply pipe it is dug too deep, or it may be 
dug level, and as the pipe must be pitched back to 
the main, it will have to be blocked up. Do not 
block up a supply pipe on filled-in earth. Start 
the blocking from the bottom of the trench or from 



STEAM AND GAS FITTING 159 

the lowest excavated part. There is no special 
amount of pitch required for such pipes as the 
more pitch they have the less liability they will 
have to form a water trap. After the pipe is all 
laid, pToperly graded and blocked, test the pipe, 
for the purpose of ascertaining if there are any 
leaks, before the pipe is covered up. The pipe be- 
ing" found perfectly gas tight, the trench can now 
be filled up. It is a good plan to remain on the 
ground and superintend the work of properly fill- 
ing the ditch as the average laborer who is en- 
gaged to do the filling of such ditches has not suf- 
ficient knowledge of the work to handle the pipe 
with the necessary care. It is not an unusual thing 
to find the gas supply pipe leaking badly, after 
being covered over, by allowing heavy stones to 
fall into the ditch by carelessness on the part of 
the laborers. 

Frost in Pipes. The flow of gas is retarded by 
frost even where the supply pipe has sufficient 
pitch, if it be in too cold a place and not properly 
protected from the cold. This occurs generally in 
the main supply pipe where it passes under the 
sidewalk, and as a large amount of gas passes 
through the supply pipe, a large amount of mois- 
ture comes with the gas. It is this moisture which 
freezes to the sides of the pipe, like heavy frost on 
a window, but much coarser, and looks very much 
like coarse salt. It will keep on accumulating, 
gradually filling up the pipe toward the center 



160 STEAM AND GAS FITTING 

from all sides, until the pipe is entirely filled and 
the flow of gas arrested. 

To remedy this difficulty the pipe should 
be covered with some felt or other material, 
dry sawdust may be also used and placed in a box 
around the pipe. By striking the pipe a sharp blow 
with a hammer the frost will fall from the sides of 
the pipe and lie at the bottom of the pipe. This 
does not clear the pipe entirely, but will allow the 
gas to flow through the upper part of the pipe. 
This frost cannot be blown back into the main and 
to clear the frost out entirely alcohol must be 
poured into the pipe at the meter connection, a 
half pint or more, which will melt the frost and 
carry the water which is formed into the main. 

Fittings. Gas fittings should be of malleable 
iron in prefeTence to cast iron as they are lighter 
and neater in appearance, besides being much 
stronger. Standard fittings for use in gas lighting 
work are shown in Figs. 94, 95 and 96. Union el- 
bows and tees are shown in Fig. 97 and gas service 
cocks in Fig. 98. 

Connecting a Meter. The gas pipes in the build- 
ing,, as well as the supply pipe from the street, 
should be tested before the meter is connected, to 
avoid the possibility of damaging the meter by 
any sudden pressure. The supply pipes should 
also be blown out so that the liability of dirt being 
carried into the meter by the ga,s will be obviated. 

After connecting the meter care should be taken 



STEAM AND GAS FITTING 



161 



to turn on the gas slowly until the pressure has 
had a chance to equalize on the distributing side. 
Tliis prevents a sudden strain on the meter. A 
meter should not be set in a place -wanner than 100 
or colder than 40 degrees Fahrenheit, as the oil in 




nTn 







# 













Fig. 94. 

the meter diaphragms is very susceptible to heat 
or cold. 

Reading a Meter. One complete revolution of a 
hand registers the number of cubic feet marked 
above the dial. 



162 



STEAM AND GAS FITTING 



STREET ELBOWS 




ELBOWS 




DROP ELBOWS 





DROP TEES 




WALL PLATES CHANDELIER HOOKS 



FOUR-WAY TEES 




CROSS OVERS 



1^ 



REDUCING 
COUPLINGS 




EXTENSION PIECES 




Fig. 95, 



■^^^■1 



STEAM AND GAS FITTING 



163 




STEAM AND GAS FITTINGS 

ELBOWS 



CAST IRON 

STRAIGHT 



REDUCING ELBOWS 
CAST IRON 



450 ELBOWS 
CAST IRON 




ECCENTRIC 
TEES 

CAST IRON 





REDUCING TEES 
CAST IRON 



Fig. 86. 



164 



STEAM AND GAS FITTING 





WITH FEMALE UNION 



WITH MALE UNION 




WITH FEMALE UNION 




WITH MALE UNION 



Fig. 97. 



Put down the figures on each dial, that the hand 
has just passed, and add two ciphers. The num- 





Fig. 98. 



ber obtained will be the amount of gas in cubic 
feet that the meter has measure. From this amount 



STEAM AND GAS FITTING 



165 



subtract tlie last reading of the meter and the re- 
sult is the amount of gas consumed in the inter- 
vening period. 

A type of meter and one of the most used is 
shown in Fig. 99, and the dial plate of a gas 
meter in Fig. 100. 




Fig. 99. 



Blow-torch. In working around gas fixtures 
that are in place, the gas fitter should be very care- 
ful about the walls and ceilings and not blacken 
them with the blow-torch in case he has to heat a 
joint for the purpose of connecting. Proper tools 
should be at hand to do' this work with, and in 



166 



STEAM AND GAS FITTING 



place of using gasoline or some other kind of oil 
in the torch, the best kind of alcohol should be 




HOW TO READ (-Qil) 1 A GAS METER. 

.^^^^^ ^i^^^^o vJii^^. 




Pig. lOOo 



used, so that there will be no smoke from it to 
dirty the walls or ceiling. Fig. 101 shows a gas 




Pig. 101. 



fitter's blow-torch, made in the best possible man- 
ner and adapted for many purposes. 



STEAM AND GAS FITTING 



167 



Mantle Lamp. The mantle lamps of which 
there are a great many diffexent varieties, resem- 



1 



/|diiiiiiie'i"*i:''3ii'ciMiiiiiii!ilf^ 




FiK. 102. 



ble somewhat the old-fashioned round or Argand 
type of bnmer, but the manner in which the light 
is produced is entirely different in the mantle 



168 STEAM AND GAS FITTING 

lamp. The liglit produced by this lamp does not 
eome from the flame itself, as in the case of an or- 
dmary gas burner, but from the mantle, and is due 
to the intense heat to which it is subject by the ac- 
tion of the Bunsen flame within the lower end of 
the mantle. Fig. 102 shows one form of a mantle 
lamp. 

In transferring a mantle from its box to the 
burner, take the two ends of the string in one 
hand and lift the mantle out of the paper tube. 
By holding the top part of the burner in the other 
hand and below the mantle, the latter can safely 
be lowered into position. Before fixing the chim- 
ney examine the mantle, as a faulty one will be 
exchanged by the dealer if returned before being 
lit. A mantle is made up of a regular series of 
loops, each row connected to the one above, and if 
at any point a loop does not join the row above, 
the mantle should be returned as faulty, as it is 
almost certain to develop a break as soon as used. 
Other faults, such as broken collars, broken sus- 
pending loops, fractured sides, and torn bottoms, 
are noticeable at a glance 

When lighting incandescent burners, the light 
should be applied from underneath the chimney, 
but above the screen which prevents lighting 
back. Some prefer to light from the top of the 
chimney, in which case the gas should be turned 
OB sufficient time before the light is applied to 
allow the gas to expel all the air in the chimney, 



STEAM AND GAS FITTING 169 

so that little or no explosion shall take place, and 
the mantle may be free from consequent damage. 

The breakage of mantles when in position may 
be avoided by attention to a few rules. Fix in- 
candescent burners only on good sound and clear 
gas fittings. Where there is much vibration, use 
one of the anti-vibration fram.es now on the mar- 
ket, these frames are specially suitable for hang- 
ing lights, such as the arc lamps, etc. All pend- 
ants for the incandescent light should be supplied 
with loose joints, and they should never be 
screwed stiff, or the mantle will break if it gets 
the slightest knock. In draughty places, such as 
lobbies, passages, and corridors, a mica chimney 
is desirable, so as to avoid breakage of the chim- 
ney, and to preserA'-e the mantle. 

If a newly fixed burner gives an unsatisfactory 
light, either there may be an insufficient gas sup- 
ply, or the mantle may be much too wide, perhaps 
both conditions exist. In the first case the mantle 
will be well lit all round the bottom, with the light 
getting worse towards the top. If two of the four 
air-holes in the Bunsen tube are covered by the 
fingers, the light will at once improve. Therefore, 
either reduce the amount of air admitted, or in- 
crease the quantity of gas supplied. To reduce 
the amount of air, unscrew the Bunsen tube and 
^x inside it a piece of card or tin to cover two 
opposite holes. To increase the gas supply, re- 
move the burner from the fittings, and unscrew 



170 STEAM AND GAS FITTING 

the Bunsen tube, when the gas regulator nipple 
will be seen to consist of a brass tube having a 
metal top with small holes, which should be very 
slightly enlarged. Very handy for this purpose 
is a hat-pin, ground to a long taper and passed up 
from the under side. Wlien a mantle is too wide, 
one side only is incandescent, the other side hang- 
ing away from the gas ring. This fault is, of 
course, easily seen before the burner is used, if, 
however, the mantle has been lit, the light can be 
improved by slightly lowering the mantle and, as 
this is tapered, presenting a smaller surface to 
the flame. Take off the mantle, lifting it by a wire 
under the suspending loop. Then place the wire 
across a glass tumbler with the mantle suspended 
inside. Take out the support, nick it with a file 
about % inch from the plain end, and break it off, 
then replace the mantle. 

It is noticed that the brilliant light given by a 
new burner does not last, the light after a fort- 
night probably commencing to decrease. If kept in 
use, the mantle top becomes coated with soot and 
a smoky flame issues. The burners go wrong in 
a much shorter time if used in a room in which a 
fire is constantly burning. The cause of this is 
simply dust, which is drawn in at the air-holes 
and carried up the Bunsen tube. It cannot pass 
away owing to the screen, to which it adheres, 
thus preventing the gas getting away quickly 
enough to draw in the proper amount of air. To 



STEAM AND GAS FITTING 171 

remedy this, take off the mantle and, with a small 
brush (an old nail- or tooth-brush), remove the 
dirt, blowing through the screen afterwards. 
Then replace the mantle, clean and replace the 
chimney, unscrew the Bunsen tube, and brush the 
nipple clean. Blow the dust from the tube and 
then refix the top. If the mantle is covered with 
soot, leave the gas half on until the soot is re- 
moved. To keep the burners at their best, this 
process should be done at least monthly. If the 
burners are in a dusty place they will require 
more frequent cleaning. 

Failure of the bye-pass in arc lamps is a com- 
mon fault, even in new burners. The bye-pass 
light may go out after the gas is turned on. In a 
new burner this is often caused by one of the two 
set-screws on the side of the burner being inserted 
too far; in this case, after unscrewing a complete 
turn, the burner will most likely work. It is 
sometimes necessary to take out both screws and 
to remove the grease adhering inside the end of 
the hole. 

Gas Proving Pump. Considerable time will be 
saved by having a good force pump with which the 
supply pipe in the street and the house pipes may 
be tested. A gas proving pump is shown in Fig. 
103. 

Cleaning Gas Fixtures. If the gas fixtures can- 
not be kept covered in summer time, they can be 
kept clean by going over them every two or three 



172 



STEAM AND GAS FITTING 



days witli a soft, damp clotli, which must not be 
pressed hard against the fixture, as there will be 
danger of rubbing off the thin coat of lacquer. All 
that is to be taken off is the fly-specks, for if they 
are allowed to remain for more than two or three 




days they will eat in through the lacquer and also 
through the plating and then the more the fixtures 
are cleaned the worse they will look. No powder 
or polish of any kind should be used for the pur- 
pose of cleaning gas fixtures, as it will at once de- 
stroy the only protection a gas fixture has, that is 



STEAM AND GAS FITTING 



173 



the coat of lacquer. After using a damp clotli to 
c^ean the fixture, dry each part at once with a 
soft, dry cloth, as it will injure the coat of lacquer 
to allow water to dry on the fixture. Even the 
moisture from the hand will sometimes leave a 
stain that can never be cleaned oif. 



Flow of Natural Gas Through A One-Inch | 




Circular Opening 






Pressure, 
Inches 
Water. 


Cubic Feet 


Inches 


Cubic Feet 


Pressure, 
Pounds per 


Cubic Feet 


per Hour. 


Mercury. 


per Hour. 


Square 
Inch. 


per Hour. 


2 


2,041 


1 


5,168 


5 


17,186 


4 


2,897 


2 


7,632 


6 


18,989 


6 


3,542 


3 


9,305 


8 


21,778 


8 


4,116 


4 


10,552 


10 


23,388 


10 


4,563 


5 


12,019 


12 


25,479 






6 


13,220 


15 


27,876 






7 


14,182 


20 


33,027 






8 


15,316 


25 


38,002 






9 


16,025 


30 


42,762 






10 


16,970 


35 
40 
50 
60 


48,074 
52,761 
62,352 
71,125 



Height of Column of Liquid to Produce One Pound 

Pressure per Square Inch at 62 Degrees 

Temperature. 



Water 

Machinery oil 
Mercury 



27.71 

30.80 

2.04 



GAS BURNERS. 

While much has been written upon the princi- 
ple involved in obtaining a light from gas, very 
little is generally known as to what is required 
and what is the best means to adopt to secure the 
greatest amount of light at the least cost, and 
with the least vitiation of the atmosphere of the 
room where the light is required. Many and vari- 
ous improvements have been brought forward 
for the accomplishment of these objects, some 
require only a very slight alteration to the exist- 
ing tittings and yet give very excellent results, 
while others secure a very high illuminating 
effect and at the same time not only remove the 
vitiated air which has been used to support the 
combustion of the flame, but at the same time 
carry off the air rendered useless for supporting 
life by the inspiration and absorption of the oxy- 
gen. 

The principle which is involved in the burning 
of gas may with advantage be here mentioned. 
Coal gas contains many very different substances, 
about one-half of it is hydrogen, one-third marsh 
ga,s, and perhaps one-tenth is carbon monoxide. 

The three gases mentioned in the statement are 
of no value as regards the light they will give by 

174 



GAS BURNERS 175 

themselves, but they are capable of giving a great 
heat when ignited, and this heat is utilised for the 
purpose of rendering white hot the small quantity 
of hydro-carbons in the gas, and it is this incan- 
descence of the very finely divided carbon parti- 
cles which makes the flame luminous. 

When a gas burner is lighted, the rush of gas 
from the orifice of the burner causes a current of 
air to pass upon each side of the flame, and thus 
supply the oxygen necessary to support combus- 
tion, the portion of the flame nearest to the burner 
is almost non-luminous, and is, in fact, unignited 
gas enclosed in a thin envelope of bright red 
flame. That this is really unconsumed gas can be 
shown b}^ placing the lower end of a glass tube 
into this portion of the flame and applying a light 
at the upper end, when the gas issuing from it is 
seen to bum with an ordinary flame. The reason 
that this portion of the gas is not luminous is that 
the quantity of oxygen which is able to get to the 
flame at this point is only sufficient to cause the 
outer portion to be in a state of incandescence. 
That there is solid carbon in the flame may be 
seen by inserting a piece of cold metal or porcelain 
in the white portion of the flame, which, by re- 
ducing the temperature of the carbon, becomes 
coated with soot upon the under side. The same 
effect takes place when the cold air is allowed to 
blow upon the surf ace. of the flame, the excess of 
oxygen presented to the flame causing a cooling of 



176 GAS BURNERS 

the heating gases and, a consequent loss of light, 
as the particles of carbon are not then sufficiently 
heated to be made white hot and to give off light, 
and they then allow the carbon to pass off in the 
form of soot and to blacken the ceilings and paint 
of the rooms. This is more likely to occur with 
high quality gas, which contains more particles of 
hydro-carbons, and if there be an insufficient sup- 
ply of oxygen to the flame a larger proportion of 
soot will be allowed to escape and. settle upon the 
ceilings, etc. Another source of blackening of the 
ceilings is the nearness of the burners and the ab- 
sence of a guard over them to deflect and spread 
the products of combustion over a large space. 
The real explanation of this effect is that aqueous 
vapour formed by the burning gas is condensed 
on the ceiling, and dust particles which are float- 
ing m the air are thereby caused to adhere to the 
ceilings. With high quality gases small burners 
should be used, so that the gas may be more 
thoroughly consumed. 

It appears that the first burners were simply 
pieces of pipe with one end stopped up. In the 
centre of the end was drilled a small hole, and the 
light given off, principally owing to the shape of 
the flame, was very small. Then was invented the 
bat wing burner, which has a slot cut in the dome- 
shaped top, and this gave a flame^ somewhat of 
the shape of a bat 's wing, hence the name. Then 
came the union jet, which is an arrangement very 



GAS BURNERS 177 

generally in domestic use at the present day. It 
consists of a piece of brass tube plugged with a 
piece of steatite or porcelain with two holes in it 
drilled at such an angle that the two streams of 
gas issuing from them meet, and cause the flame of 
gas to spread and form a flame of horseshoe shape. 
One of the special points to be noticed in these 
burners is that the holes in them should be of 
comparatively large size, and the pressure of the 
gas when delivered from the burner reduced to the 
lowest point at which a firm flame can be main- 
tained. This can be done best by means of what is 
known as a governor, which is in effect a self-act- 
ing valve which allows only just soi much gas to 
pass as may be required. 

Passing on to the more modern styles of burn- 
ers, of which there are many patterns, such as the 
regenerative burners, it is found that all these em- 
body the same principle, which is to use the heat 
generated by the flame to heat the gas supply and 
the air supply so that the cooling effect of the air, 
which causes the blue portion of an ordinary flat 
flame, is considerably reduced, and the particles 
of carbon are rendered more rapidly incandescent, 
and, being heated to a greater temperature, attain 
greater luminosity and are kept for a longer 
period at this white heat. 

The earliest arrangement of such a burner was 
invented in 1854, and consisted of an argand burn- 
er with two chimnevs, one outside of the other, 



178 GAS BURNERS 

the air supply to the flame having to pass down 
between the two glasses, and so to become heated 
before it was led to the bottom of the burner. This 
answered very well, but the breakage of the chim- 
ney glasses was a considerable expense, and de- 
barred many from adopting the system. This 
trouble is quite overcome in the modern regenera- 
tive burners, as the chimneys are made of metal 
and the burner isi inverted, so that the flame is 
spread outwards instead of, as in the argand 
burner, upwards. The regenerative burner gives a 
light having four times the illuminating power of 
the flat-flame burner. 

With the incandescent burners, quite a modem 
invention, the principle of admitting air to mix 
with the gas before lighting is employed as in the 
Bunsen heating burner, and this, while taking 
away the luminosity of the flame, causes it to give 
off a much greater amount of heat, this heat being 
utilised to render a mantle of rare earths incandes- 
cent or white hot. These mantles are made conical 
in shape, and when made white hot emit a most 
pleasing white light, which is about five or six 
times more intense than that given off by the ordi- 
nary flat flame burner. 

With a properly arranged ventilating regenera- 
tive burner, consuming 20 cubic feet of gas per 
hour, and properly fitted, not only can all its own 
product of combustion be removed, but also the air 
vitiated by breathing can be removed at the rate of 



GAS BURNERS 179 

more than 5,000 cubic feet per hour from the up- 
per part of the room. 

The comparative quantity of air vitiated by dif- 
ferent illuminants giving the same amount of light 
is shown by the following table:— 

Gas burnt in union jets 1 

Lamp burning sperm oil 1.6 

Lamp burning kerosene oil 2.25 

Tallow candles 4.35 

From this table it will be seen that kerosene 
lamps use up more than twice the amount of the 
oxygen of the air that gas does, while tallow can- 
dies use more than four times the amount. 

For a light of 32 candle-power, tallow candles 
would vitiate as much air as would be required 
by about 36 adult persons, kerosene oil lamps as 
much asi tifteen adults, while gas varied from an 
amount of air required for nine and a half adults 
when a batwing burner was used, to eight and a 
half when an argand burner was used. In these 
experiments not only was the quantity of oxygen 
consumed taken into consideration, but carbon 
dioxide and the water vapour were all taken ac- 
count of. 

Special attention must be directed to the neces- 
sity of having burners suitable to the quality of 
gas which is being used. It may be taken as a 
fairly general rule that the higher the illuminat- 
ing power of the gas the smaller the burner should 



180 GAS BURNERS 

be. With unsuitable burners, not only blacken- 
ing of the ceilings, but a far lower state of effi- 
ciency as regards the illuminating power of the 
light obtained from a given quantity of gas will 
result. 

The effect of using bad burners is primarily 
that the light capable of being developed from the 
consumption of a definite quantity of gas is not 
obtained, consequently more gas is burnt than 
necessity requires, in other words, gas is wasted, 
and with imperfect combustion, deleterious prod- 
ucts are given off, vitiating the atmosphere and 
endangering health. 

That the burners which are most economical in 
gas consumption are the most expensive at first 
cost is certainly the case to some extent, but the 
amount of the saving effected by their use quickly 
repays the first cost, and thereafter the money 
saved goes directly into the po'cket of the user of 
the burner. The incandescent burner is the most 
economical burner that is at present known, and 
where gas is at a high price it is a very distinct 
advantage, as the quantity of gas required for a 
given amount of light is only about one-fifth of 
that used with the ordinary burner. Then comes 
the argand burner, which is superior to the union 
jet or flat-flame burner, but in all these an ar- 
rangement known as a governor is generally to 
be found, by which is regulated the quantity of 
gas that can find its way to the point of ignition, 



GAS BURNERS 181 

and, if only just sufficiant is allowed to pass so 
that none is wasted, gas is economised. These 
R'ovemors are also made for use with the ordinary 
flat-flame burner. 

As has been said, the principal gas burners now 
in use are the flat-flame, argand, and incandes- 
cent. Flat-flame burners embrace the union jet, 
or fishtail, and the batwing. In the union jet or 
fishtail the gas issues through two apertures in 
a steatite plate inserted in the top of a cylindrical 
brass tube, threaded at its lower end for the pur- 
pose of attaching to a gas-fixture. The holes in 
the steatite tip through which tliq gas issues are 
inclined towards each other at an angle, so that 
the gas issues in two streams which unite into one 
flat flame at right angles to a plane passing 
through the two holes. One of the reasons of the 
adoption of steatite for the tip of the gas, burner 
was the fact that it required a verv high heat to 
harm it. Steatite is a natural stone found in vari- 
ous parts of the world, principally in Germany. 
Chemically it is a double silicate of magnesium, 
and a substitute for the natural substance may be 
obtained by mixing silicate of magnesium and sil- 
icate of potash. Natural steatite is of a very fine 
grain, and softer than ivory, it admits of being 
worked to a very fine polish^ but after it has been 
burned in a kiln it becomes harder than the hard- 
est steel, and will resist a very high temperature, 
about 2,000° Fahrenheit. In forming the steatite 



182 GAS BURNERS 

into burner tips, the material is finely powdered, 
moistened with water, and kneaded into a plastic 
condition, after which it is moulded to the reaui- 
site shape and finally burnt to harden it. The 
diameter of the orifices in the steatite tips, 
through which the gas issues, differs in size, the 
aim being in each case to produce a flame of a 
thickness suited to the quality of the gas the 
burner is intended to consume. 

The bat wing burner resembles the fishtail or 
union in its general features, but. differs in the 
manner in which the gas issues from it. In this 
form of burner the hollow tip is made dome- 
shaped and has a narrow slit cut across it and ex- 
tending some little distance down. The slit 
varies in width to suit different qualities of gas. 
The batwing burner requires less pressure than 
the union jet, with the result that the gas issues 
with less force, so that the flame produced in 
burners of this class is not so stiff as that obtained 
with a union burner. Consequently it is neces- 
sary to employ globes with burners of this de- 
scription in order to protect them from draught, 
which would cause them to flicker and smoke. 



GAS STOVES AND FIRES. 

An examination of tlie principles of gas stoves, 
and a consideration of the advantages and disad- 
vantages of these heating appliances, may appro- 
priately precede any description of gas stoves 
themselves. A point often ignored in the heating 
of rooms is that a, room will not feel warm until 
its walls reach the same temperature as the air 
which it contains. Until this occurs, the room 
will feel draughty, owing to the fact that the walls 
are depriving the air of the heat given out by the 
stove. 

It is necessary to examine the conditions of the 
room or building to be heated before making any 
calculation as to the amount of gas required to 
heat it. Architects calculate the cubical contents 
of the room, and gauge from this the size and 
character of the heating appliances required. A 
better plan is to calculate the area of the wall sur- 
face, and, in ordinary dwelling-houses, allow that 
one-half a heat unit is absorbed by each square 
foot per hour for each degree Fahrenheit rise 
after the necessary warming up is complete. 

The number of heat units generated per cubic 
foot of gas of sixteen candle-power, theoretically 
is 670 to 680, therefore, to raise the temperature 

188 



184 GAS STOVES AND FIRES 

in a room which has been once warmed, it is 
necessary to allow a consumption of 1 cubic foot 
for every 1,300 square feet of wall surface. For 
the preliminary heating, however, considerably 
more than this is required, and as there should be 
B change of air in the room about every twenty 
minutes, practically three-fourths of the heat pro- 
duced by the stoves passes away by ventilation, 
and consequently about four times the above-men- 
tioned quantity of heat is required to raise the 
temperature of a room from the commencement, 
when it is at about the same temperature as the 
external air. 

It was at one time recommended to fix a row of 
Bunsen burners in front of or underneath an ordi- 
nary coal fire-grate, filled either with bla,ck fuel, 
made of fireclay, or with small coke. It gave a 
very^ cheerful appearance, but it was found that 
the quantity of coke used, together with the con- 
sumption of gas, rendered the plan uneconomical. 
Many persons set a high value upon the cheerful 
appearance of this arrangement, and are willing 
to pay for it, and makers have brought forward 
improvements by which a saving of gas is effected. 
Still, gas fires in ordinary coal grates can only be 
recommended in preference to gas stoves when 
economy is not essential. 

Stoves in which air passes over heated surfaces 
are more economical than ordinary gas stoves, 
but, on the other hand, they are more liable to 



GAS STOVES AND FIRES 185 

cause unpleasant odours through the heating of 
the dust particles. With these stoves, as also with 
hot-air and hot-water pipes, as distinct from 
grates, the heated air has a great tendency to rise 
to the top of the room, leaving the feet cold while 
the head is too warm. The same effect is noticed 
where enclosed stoves are set forward some dis- 
tance into the room, but these stoves are very eco- 
nomical, and where fuel is dear this is a, para- 
mount consideration. One pound of coal burnt in 
an ordinary grate requires, for its proper com- 
bustion, 300 cubic feet of air having a tempera- 
ture of 620° Fahrenheit, and 1 volume of gas for 
complete combustion requires 5% volumes of air. 
In atmospheric or Bunsen burners the average 
mixture of gas and air is 1 volume of gas to 2.3 
volumes of air, consequently, a further supply of 
air around the flame is necessary to cause com- 
plete combustion, and an analysis of the gases, 
taken from the centre of the glowing fuel, shows 
that often 10 per cent of carbon monoxide exists, 
and, should down-draughts occur, this must find 
its way unnoticed— for it has neither smell nor 
color— into the room, hence the necessity for en- 
suring a good draught from the stove. Curiously 
enough, however, the analyses of gases in the flue 
during the burning of the gas stove do not show a 
trace of this deadly gas. An average of some 
twenty-four stoves tested in this way showed the 
presence of 12 per cent of oxygen, 84 per cent of 



186 GAS STOVES AND FIRES 

nitrogen, and 4 per cent of carbonic acid, thus 
proving that all the carbon monoxide had been 
converted into carbonic acid before leaving the 
stove when burning in the proper manner. This 
shows conclusively that flues are a necessity with 
gas stoves in which Bunsen burners are in use, 
although they need not be so large as the usual 
coal-grate flue, but where flues are not possible, 
only such stoves as employ ordinary lighting 
burners and utilise the heat radiated from a pol- 
ished surface should be fixed. 

Where a smoky chimney exists, a gas stove will 
not cure it, unless the fault is due to a contraction 
of the flue, by which the flow of the draught is 
impeded. In that case a, much smaller flue for 
carrying off the products of combustion being suf- 
ficient with a gas stove as compared with a coal 
fire, the trouble will probably disappear, but it 
would be well to ascertain the origin of the fault 
before recommending the adoption of a ga,s stove 
as a remedy. 



GAS-FITTING IN WORKSHOPS. 

In fitting workshops with gas, it is important 
that strong materials be employed and it is desir- 
able to use iron pipes throughout. Where a row 
of benches is fixed upon each side of a workshop, 
it is usual to run a pipe along just below the ceil- 
ing, with tees between each window, from these a 
small pipe is carried down to either a single or 
double swing iron bracket. Some firms who make 
gas-fittings, supply iron brackets, but they can be 
made up quickly from the fittings and short pieces 
of iron pipe. Brass swivels wear considerably 
better than those that are made of iron, and do 
not corrode and stick in the working parts. 

When the lights are to be located down the mid- 
dle of a workshop where lathes or other machine 
tools are used, the only brass parts are the cocks 
and burner elbows, the ordinary iron tee being very 
suitable for the centre of the pendant. Where 
more than one floor is to be lighted, ^x on the 
supply pipe a governor for regulating the quan- 
tity of gas delivered, otherwise the pressure due 
to the height of the upper floors will cause a low- 
ering of the light in the ground floor ot basement. 
It is also an advantage to have each floor separate- 

187 



188 GAS-FITTING IN WORKSHOPS 

ly supplied from tlie main, so that each floor may 
b-e shut off entirely without interfering with the 
others, and if a separate meter be supplied for 
each floor, the quantity of gas consumed in pro- 
portion to the work done after dark may be check- 
ed, and any escape noted. Where a pipe falls, a 
pipe syphon or syphon-box should be fixed, as the 
temperature is subject to extreme changes and the 
quantity of condensation is much greater than in 
private houses. 

When the pipes are run through the floor and 
up the legs of the lathes or other machinery, it is 
usual to bend the pipe to the exact curves taken 
by the machine, and to fix the pipe in its place by 
means of bands of iron bent to the curve of the 
pipe, and fixed to the machine by two small set 
screws. These bands may also be found useful 
in fitting up houses where the nature of the wall 
or floor will not permit the use of the ordinary 
pipe-hook. 

It is often found necessary to fit up in a work- 
shop over each machine a bracket arranged so as 
to move in any direction to suit the convenience 
of the workman. One way of making these fit- 
tings is to make the elbows of the brackets of two- 
double swing swivels— one upright and one on its 
side. Another wa}'^ is to have two lines of pipes 
from the support, and to connect both at each end 
to double swivels, while between the upper and 
lower pipe, and laid at an angle, is a thin bar, 



GAS-FITTING IN WORKSHOPS 189 

which is fixed on to the upper pipe, and can be 
clamped to the lower one when the exact position 
required has been obtained. This form of bracket 
is useful in drawing offices, where the burner and 
shade commonly in use cause the other pattern of 
bracket to gradually fall downwards . on to the 
table, whereas the second arrangement always 
keeps parallel, and, if tightly clamped, cannot 
change its i^osition without breaking the thin 
metal bar, which should be made sufficiently 
strong to withstand the strain due to the weight 
of the heaviest burner chimney and shade likely 
to be placed upon it. 

In making brackets and jDendants it is conveni- 
ent to know a quick and efficient way to bend iron 
pipes. The exact sliape required having been 
drawn full size upon paper the latter is tacked or 
posted on to a rough board. Strong cut nails are 
then driven in it to follow the desired curve, the 
nails being half the outside diameter of the pipe 
from the drawn line, so that the centre of the pipe, 
when bent, may lie directly over the drawn line. 
The iron pipe is heated in a forge fire or in a fur- 
nace, the latter heats the pipe equally over the 
length required. The end is ii^erted between the 
lines of nails, and, with the aid of a pair of pliers, 
is quickly made to follow the curves indicated by 
the nails. Nails are not necessary on the outer 
side of the curves, except at the starting point, 
where a firm grip of the pipe must be insured. 



190 GAS-FITTING IN WORKSHOPS 

Where many pipes are to be bent tO' tlie same 
shape, the board is replaced by a square plate, 
with holes all over it, cast or wrought-iron curves 
replacing the nails. The saving in time and the 
accuracy of the bending soon repay the additional 
outlay. In bending iron pipe, proceed gradually, 
and make only small curves at a time, or the pipe 
will collapse. 

For shop brackets, metal backs are found suit- 
able. These metal backs are supplied with the 
fittings, and are drilled and countersunk ready 
for erection, space being left for the pipe to screw 
into the top of the swivel joint. A metal back 
makes a strong job, and answers every purpose 
where very neat finish is not necessary. 

In all workshops ventilation is a prime requisite, 
and must be provided for, more especially where 
the rooms are low and a considerable number of 
workmen and gas lights are employed. Gas is an 
excellent draught inductor, an ordinary batwing 
or union jet burner consuming 1 cubic foot of gas 
per hour, when placed in a six-inch ventilating 
tube 12 feet long, will cause 2,460 cubic feet of air 
per hour to pass up the tube, and this induced 
draught can be easily adapted for the removal of 
the heated and vitiated air from the upper por- 
tion of the room. Each person present will give 
off per hour about 17.7 cubic feet of air, of which 
from .6 to .8 of a cubic foot will be carbonic acid 
(CO2), the amount of CO 2 evolved from the com- 



\ GAS-FITTING IN WORKSHOPS 191 

bustion of coal gas is equal practically to one-lialf 
the quantity of gas burnt, and an ordinary gas 
burner may be considered as being equivalent to 
at least three adults in its effect upon the atmos- 
phere. The air space required in a workshop is 
250 cubic feet for each person during the day and 
400 feet at night. Again, 500 cubic feet of fresh 
air per ijerson should be delivered into a room 
during each hour, and therefore the same quantity 
of vitiated air must be drawn away by some 
means, no method is more suitable or so effective 
as the one above proposed, in which a lighted 
gas burner is enclosed by a ventilating shaft. A 
well-constructed ceiling burner has an excellent 
effect upon the ventilation of a room, workshop, 
or hall, when a properly arranged vertical shaft, 
usually of sheet iron, is carried up through the 
roof, and will at the same time assist greatly in 
the general illumination of the shop. 



USEFUL INFORMATION. 

One heaped bushel of anthracite coal weighs 
from 75 to 80 lbs. 

One heaped bushel of bituminous coal weighs 
from 70 to 75 lbs. 

One bushel of coke weighs 32 lbs. 

Water, gas and steam pipes are measured on 
the inside. 

One cubic inch of water evaporated at atmos- 
pheric pressure makes 1 cubic foot of steam. 

A heat unit known as a British Thermal Unit 
raises the temperature of 1 pound of water 1 de- 
gree Fahrenheit. 

For low pressure heating purposes, from 3 to 8 
pounds of coal per hour is considered economical 
consumption, for each square foot of grate sur- 
face in a boiler, dependent upon conditions. 

A horse power is estimated equal to 75 to 100 
square feet of direct radiation. A horse power is 
also estimated as 15 square feet of heating surface 
in a standard tubular boiler. 

Water boils in a vacuum at 98 degrees Fahren 
heit. 

A cubic foot of water weighs 62% pounds, it 
contains 1,728 cubic inches or 7% gallons. Water 

192 



USEFUL INFORMATION 193 

expands in boiling about one-twentieth of its bulk. 

In turning into steam water expands 1,700 its 
bulk, approximately 1 cubic inch of water will 
produce 1 cubic foot of steam. 

One pound of air contains 13.82 cubic feet. 

It requires 1% British Thermal Units to raise 
one cubic foot of air from zero to 70 degrees Fah- 
renheit. 

At atmospheric pressure 966 heat units are re- 
quired to evaporate one pound of water into 
steam. 

A pound of anthracite coal contains 14,500 heat 
uits. 

One horsepower is equivalent to 42.75 heat units 
per minute. 

One horsepower is required to raise 33,000 
pounds one foot high in one minute. 

To produce one horsepower requires the evapo- 
ration of 2.66 pounds of water. 

One ton of anthracite coal contains about 40 
cubic feet. 

One bushel of anthracite coal weighs about 86 
pounds. 

Heated air and water rise because their parti- 
cles are more expanded, and therefore lighter than 
the colder particles. 

A vacuum is a portion of space from which the 
air has been entirely exhausted. 

Evaporation is the slow passage of a liquid into 
the form of vapor. 



194 USEFUL INFORMATION 

Increase of temperature, increased exposure of 
surface, and tlie passage of air currents over the 
surface, cause increased evaporation. 

Condensation is the passage of a vapor into the 
liquid state, and is the reverse of evaporation. 

Pressure exerted upon a liquid is transmitted 
undiminished in all directions, and acts with the 
same force on all surfaces, and at right angles to 
those surfaces. 

The pressure at each level of a liquid is propor- 
tional to its depth. 

With different liquids and the same depth, pres- 
sure is proportional to the density of the liquid. 

The pressure is the same at all points on any 
given level of a liquid. 

The pressure of the upper layers of a body of 
liquid on the lower layers causes the latter to ex- 
ert an equal reactive upward force. This force is 
called buoyancy. 

Friction does not depend in the least on the 
pressure of the liquid upon the surface over which 
it is flowing. 

Friction is proportional to the area of the sur- 
face. 

At a low velocity friction increases with the ve- 
locity of the liquid. 

Friction increases with the roughness of the 

surface. 

Friction increases with the density of the liquid. 
Friction is greater comparatively, in small 



USEFUL INFORMATION 195 

pipes, for a greater proportion of the water comes 
in contact with the sides of the pipe than in the 
case of the large pipe. For this reason mains on 
heating apparatus should be generous in size. 

Air is extremely compressible, while water is 
almost incompressible. 

Water is composed of two parts of hydrogen, 
and one part of oxygen. 

Water will absorb gases, and to the greatest ex- 
tent when the pressure of the gas upon the water 
is greatest, and when the temperature is the low- 
est, for the elastic force of gas is then less. 

Air is composed of about one-iifth oxygen and 
four-fifths nitrogen, with a small amount of car- 
bonic acid gas. 

To reduce Centigrade temperatures to Fahren- 
heit, multiply the Centigrade degrees by 9, divide 
the result by 5, and add 32. 

To reduce Fahrenheit temperature to Centi- 
grade, subtract 32 from the Fahrenheit degrees, 
multiply by 5 and divide by 9. 

To find the area of a required pipe, when the 
volume and velocity of the water are gi^^en, mul- 
tiply the number of cubic feet of water by 144 and 
divide this amount by the velocity in feet per 
minute. 

Water boils in an open vessel (atmospheric 
pressure at sea level) at 212 degrees Fahrenheit. 

Water expands in heating from 39 to 212 de- 
grees Fahrenheit, about 4 per cent. 



196 



USEFUL INFORMATION 



Water expands about one-tenth its bulk by 
freezing solid. 

Water is at its greatest density and occupies the 
least space at 39 degrees Fahrenheit. 

Water is the best known absorbent of heat, con- 
sequently a good vehicle for conveying and trans- 
mitting heat. 

A U. S. gallon of water contains 231 cubic inches 
and weighs 8 1/3 pounds. 

A column of water 27.67 inches high has a pres- 
sure of 1 pound to the square inch at the bottom. 

Doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its 
capacity four times. 

A hot water boiler will consume from 3 to 8 
pounds of coal per hour per square foot of grate, 
the difference depending upon conditions of draft, 
fuel, system and management. 

A cubic foot of anthracite coal averages 50 
pounds. A cubic foot of bituminous coal weighs 
40 pounds. 



Pressure of 


Water for each Foot in Height. 




Feet in 
Height. 


Pounds per 
Sq. In. 


Feet in 
Height. 


Pounds per 
Sq. In. 


Feet in 
Height. 


Pounds per 
Sq. In. 


1 

2 

5 

10 


.43 

.86 

2.16 

4.33 


15 
20 
25 
40 


6.49 

8.66 

10.82 

17.32 


50 

70 

80 

100 


21.65 
30.32 
34.65 
43.31 

















USEFUL INFORMATION 



197 



Boiling Points of Various Fluids. 



Substance. 



Degrees. 



Water in Vacuum 98 

Water, Atmosph'c Pres. 212 
Alcohol 173 

Sulphuric Acid 240 



Substance. 



Degrees. 



Refined Petroleum 316 

Turpentine 315 

Sulphur 570 

Linseed Oil 597 



Weights. 

One cubic inch of water 

weighs 0.036 pounds 

One U. S. gallon weighs. . . 8.33 '' 
One Imperial gallon '' ...10.00 " 

One U. S. gallon equals 231 . 00 cubic inches 

One Imperial gallon '' ... 277 . 274 '' " 
One cubic foot of water 

equals 7 . 48 U. S. gallons 

Liquid Measure. 
4 Gills make 1 Pint 4 Quarts make 1 Gallon 

2 Pints make 1 Quart 31% Gals, make 1 Barrel 



Size of Pipe in Inches. 


Sq. Ft. in one Lineal Ft. 


Gallons of Water in 100 
Feet in Length. 


% 


.27 


2.77 


1 


.34 


4.50 


1)^ 


.43 


7.75 


IX 


.50 


10.59 


2 


.62 


17.43 


2X 


.75 


24.80 


3 


.92 


38.38 


3X 


1.05 


51.36 


4 


1.17 


66.13 



198 USEFUL INFORMATION 

T'o find the area of a rectangle, multiply the 
length by the breadth. 

To find the area of triangle, multiply the base 
by one-half the perpendicular height. 

To find the circumference of a circle, multiply 
the diameter by 3.1416. 

To find the area of a circle, multiply the diam- 
eter by itself, and the result by .7854. 

To find the diameter of a circle of a given area, 
divide the area by .7854, and find the square root 
of the result. 

To find the diameter of a circle which shall have 
the same area as a given square, multiply one side 
of the square by 1.128. 

To find the number of gallons in a cylindrical 
tank, multiply the diameter in inches by itself, 
this by the height in inches, and the result by .34. 
To find the number of gallons in a rectangular 
tank, multiply together the length, breadth and 
height in feet, and this result by 7.4. If the di- 
mensions are in inches, multiply the product by 
.004329. To find the pressure in pounds per 
square inch, of a column of water, multiply the 
height of the column in feet by .434. 

To find the head in feet, the pressure bemg 
known, multiply the pressure per square inch by 
2.31. 

To find the lateral pressure of water upon the 
side of a tank, multiply in inches, the area of the 



USEFUL INFORMATION 199 

submerged side, by tlie pressure due to one-half 
the depth. 

Example— Suppose a tank to be 12 feet long and 
12 feet deep. Find the pressure on the side of the 
tank. 

144 X 144=20,736 square inches area of side. 

12 X .43=5.16, pressure at bottom of tank. Pres- 
sure at the top of tank is 0. Average pressure 
will then be 2.6. Therefore 20,736 x 2.6=53,914 
pounds pressure on side of tank. 

To find the number of gallons in a foot of pipe 
of any given diameter, multiply the square of di- 
ameter of the pipe in inches, by .0408. 

To find the diameter of pipe to discharge a giv- 
en volume of water per minute in cubic feet, mul- 
tiply the square of the quantity in cubic feet per 
minute by 96. This will give the diameter in 
inches. 

Cleaning Eusted Iron. Place the articles to be 
cleaned in a saturated solution of chloride of tin 
and allow them to stand for a half day or more. 

When removed, wash the articles in water, then 
in ammonia. Dry quickly, rubbing them hard. 

Removing Boiler Scale. Kerosene oil will ac- 
complish this purpose, often better than specially 
prepared compounds. 

Cleaning Brass. Mix in a stone jar one part of 
nitric acid, one-half part of sulphuric acid. Dip 
the brass work into this mixture, wash it off with 
water, and dry with sawdust. If greasy, dip the 



200 USEFUL INFORMATION 

work into a strong mixture of potasli, soda, and 
water, to remove the grease, and wash it off with 
water. 

Eemoving Grease Stains from Marble. Mix IVo 
parts of soft soap, 3 parts of Fuller's earth and 
1% parts of potash, with boiling water. Cover the 
grease spots with this mixture, and allow it to 
stand a few hours. 

Strong Cement. Melt over a slow fire, equal 
parts of rubber and pitch. When wishing to ap- 
ply the cement, melt and spread it on a strip of 
strong cotton cloth. 

Cementing Iron and Stone. Mix 10 parts of fine 
iron filings, 30 parts of plaster of Paris, and one- 
half parts of sal ammoniac, with weak vinegar. 
Work this mixture into a paste, and apply quick- 
ly. 

Cement for Steam Boilers. Four parts of red 
or white lead mixed in oil, and 3 parts of iron bor- 
ings, make a good soft cement for this purpose. 

Cement for Leaky Boilers. Mix 1 part of pow- 
dered litharge, 1 part of fine sand, and one-half 
part of slacked lime with linseed oil, and apply 
quickly as possible. 

Making Tight Steam, Joints. With white lead 
ground in oil mix as much manganese as possible, 
with a small amount of litharge. Dust the board 
with red lead, and knead this mass by hand into a 
small roll, which is then laid on the plate, oiled 



USEFUL INFORMATION 201 

with linseed oil. It can then be screwed into 
place. 

Substitute for Fire Clay. Mix common earth 
with weak salt water. 

Rust Joint Cement. Mix 5 pounds of iron fil- 
ings, 1 ounce of sal ammoniac, and 1 ounce of sul- 
phur, and thin the mixture with water. 

Eemoving Eust from Steel. Mix one-half ounce 
of cyannide of potassium, V^ ounce of castile soap, 
1 ounce of whiting, adding enough water to form a 
paste, and apply to the steel. Einse it off with a 
solution formed of one-half ounce of cyannide of 
potassium and 2 ounces of water. 



COMPARATIVE VALUE OF COAL, OIL, AND 

GAS. 

In good practice, with boilers of proper con- 
struction and proportioned to the work— 

One pound of coal will evaporate 10 pounds of 
water at 212 degrees Fahrenheit. 

One pound of oil will evaporate 16 pounds of 
water at 212 degrees Fahrenheit. 

One pound of natural gas will evaporate 20 
pounds of water at 212 degrees Fahrenheit. 

One pound of coal equals 11.225 cubic feet of 
natural gas. 

Two thousand pounds of coal (1 ton) equals 22,- 
450 cubic feet of natural gas. 



202 USEFUL INFORMATION 

One pound of oil equals 18.00 cubic feet of 
natural gas. 

One barrel of oil (42 gallons) equals 5,310.00 
cubic feet of natural gas. 

1.125 cubic feet of natural gas will evaporate 1 
pound of water. 

1.00 cubic feet of natural gas equals 860 Heat 
Units. 

1,000 cubic feet of natural gas equals 860,000 
Heat Units. 

One ton of coal will equal 19,307,000 Heat Units. 

One barrel of oil will equal 4,566.600 Heat Units. 

In ordinary practice, about twice as much of the 
above fuels are required to evaporate the above 
amounts. 



USEFUL KINKS. 

Paint for Iron. Dissolve % pound of asphalt- 
um and % pound of pounded resin in 2 pounds 
of tar oil. Mix hot in an iron kettle, but do 
not allow it to come in contact with the fire. It 
may be used as soon as cold, and is good both 
for outdoor wood and ironwork. 

Recipe for Heat-Proof Paint. A good cylinder 
and exhaust pipe paint is made as follows: 

Two pounds of black oxide of manganese, 3 
pounds of graphite and 9 pounds of Fuller's 
earth, thoroughly mixed. Add a compound of 
10 parts of sodium silicate, 1 part of glucose 
and 4 parts of water, until the consistency is such 
that it can be applied with a brush. 

Rust Joint Composition. This is a cement 
made of sal-ammoniac 1 pound, sulphur % pound, 
cast-iron turnings 100 pounds. The whole 
should be thoroughly mixed and moistened with 
a little water. If the joint is required to set 
very quick, add % pound more sal-ammoniac. 
Care should be taken not to use too much sal- 
ammoniac, or the mixture will become rotten. 

Removing Rust from Iron. Iron may be 
quickly and easily cleaned by dipping in or 

203 



204 USEFUL KINKS 

washing with nitric acid one part, muTiatic acid 
one part and water twelve parts. After using 
wash with clean water. 

Making Pipe Joints. Never screw pipe to- 
gether for either steam, water or gas without 
putting white or red lead on the joints. 

Many times in taking pipe apart the joints 
are stuck so hard that it is impossible to un- 
screw the pipe; heat the coupling (not the pipe) 
by holding a hot iron on it, or hammer the 
coupling with a light hammer, either one will 
expand the coupling and break the joint so it 
can be easily unscrewed. 

Annealing Cast Iron. To anneal cast iron, 
heat it in a slow charcoal fire to a dull red heat; 
then cover it over about two inches with fine 
charcoal, then cover all with ashes. Let it lay 
until cold. Hard cast iron can be softened 
enough in this way to be filed or drilled. This 
process will be exceedingly useful to iron found- 
ers, as by this means there will be a great saving 
of expense in making new patterns. 

To make a casting of precisely the same size 
of a broken casting without the original patterns : 
Put the pieces of broken casting together and 
mould them, and ca,st from this mould. Then 
anneal it as above described; it will expand to 
the original size of the pattern, and there re- 
main in that expanded state. 

Preventing Iron or Steel from Rusting. The 



USEFUL KINKS 205 

best treatment for polished iron or steel, wliicli 
has a habit of growing gray and lustreless, is 
to wash it very clean with a stiff brush and am- 
monia soapsuds, rinse well and dry by heat if 
possible, then oil plentifully with sweet oil and 
dust thickly with powdered quick lime. Let the 
lime stay on two days, then brush it off with a 
clean stiff brush. Polish with a softer brush, 
and rub with cloths until the lustre comes out. 
By leaving the lime on, iron and steel may be 
kept from rust almost indefinitely. 

Loosening Rusted Screws. One of the simplest 
and readiest ways of loosening a rusted screw is 
to apply heat to the head of the screw. A small 
bar or rod of iron, flat at the end, if reddened 
in the fire and applied for two or three minutes 
to the head of a rusty screw, will, as soon as it 
heats the screw, render its withdrawal as easy 
with the screwdriver as if it were only a recently 
inserted screw. This is not particularly novel, 
but it is worth knowing. 

Tinning Cast Iron. To successfully coat cast- 
ings with tin they must be absolutely clean and 
free from sand and oxide. They are usually 
freed from imbedded sand in a rattler or tumb- 
ling box, which also tends to close the surface 
grain and give the article a smooth metallic 
face. The articles should be then placed in a 
hot pickle of one part of sulphuric acid to four 
parts of water, in which they are allowed to 



206 USEFUL KINKS 

remain from one to two hours, or until the re- 
cesses are free from scale and sand. Spots may 
be removed by a scraper or wire brush. The 
castings are then washed in hot water and kept 
in clean hot water until ready to dip. For a 
flux, dip in a mixture composed of four parts 
of a saturated solution of sal-ammoniac in water 
and one part of hydrochloric acid, hot. Then dry 
the castings and dip them in the tin pot. The 
tin should be hot enough to quickly bring the 
castings to its own temperature when perfectly 
fluid, but not hot enough to quickly oxidize the 
surface of the tin. A sprinkling of pulverized 
sal-ammoniac may be made on the surface of the 
tin, or a little tallow or palm oil may be used 
to clear the surface and make the tinned work 
come out clear. As soon as the tin on the cast- 
ings has chilled or set, they should be washed 
in hot sal soda water and dried in sawdust. 

Removing Scale from Iron Castings. Immerse 
the parts in a mixture composed of one part of 
oil of vitriol to three parts of water. In six to 
ten hours remove the castings, and wash them 
thoroughly with clean water. A weaker solution 
can be used by allowing a longer time for the 
action of the solution. 

Cleaning Brass Castings. If greasy, the cast- 
ings should be cleaned by boiling in lye or 
potash. The first pickle is composed of nitric 
acid one quart, water six to eight quarts. After 



USEFUL KINKS 207 

pickling in this mixture the castings sliould be 
washed in clear warm or hot water, and the fol- 
lowing pickle be then used: Sulphuric acid one 
quart, nitric acid two quarts, muriatic acid, a 
few drops. The first pickle will remove the dis- 
colorations due to iron, if present. The muriatic 
acid of the second pickle will darken the color of 
the castings to an extent depending on the 
amount used. 

Tinning Surfaces. Articles of brass or copper 
boiled in a solution of cyanide of potassium 
mixed with turnings or scraps of tin in a few 
moments become covered with a firmly attached 
layer of fine tin. 

A similar effect is produced by boiling the 
articles with tin turnings or scraps and caustic 
alkali, or cream of tartar. In either way, arti- 
cles made of copper or brass may be easily and 
perfectly tinned. 

Protecting Bright Work from Rust. Use a 
mixture of one pound of lard, one ounce of gnim 
camphor, melted together, with a little lamp- 
black. A mixture of lard oil and kerosene iii 
equal parts. A mixture of tallow and white lead, 
or of tallow and lime. 

How to Braze. Clean the article thoroughly, 
and better to polish with sand paper. Fasten 
the parts to be brazed firmly together, so they 
will not part when heated in the fire. Place over 
a slow fire of charcoal or well coked coal. Place 



208 USEFUL KINKS 

on the parts to be brazed a small quantity of 
pulverized borax; as soon as this is done boiling 
and has flowed to all parts, then put on tlie 
spelter; when the spelter melts it will generally 
run in globules or shot. Jar the piece by gently 
striking with a small piece of wire; this will 
cause the spelter to flow to all parts. 

Lead Explosions. Many mechanics have had 
their patience sorely tried when pouring lead 
around a damp or wet joint, to have it explode, 
blow out or scatter from the effects of steam 
generated by the heat of the lead. The whole 
trouble may be avoided by putting a piece of 
resin, the size of a man's thumb, into the ladle 
and allowing it to melt before pouring. 

Sharpening Files. To sharpen dull ^nd worn 
out files, lay them in dilute Sulphuric Acid, one 
part acid to two parts of water over night, then 
rinse well in clear water, put the acid in an 
earthenware vessel. 

Soldering Aluminum. When soldering alum- 
inum, it should be borne in mind that upon ex- 
posure tO' the air a slight film of oxide forms 
over the surface of the aluminum, and after- 
wards protects the metal. The oxide is the same 
color as the metal, so that it cannot easily be 
distinguished. The idea in soldering is to get 
underneath this oxide while the surface is cover- 
ed with the molten solder. Clean off all dirt and 
grease from the surface of the metal with a little 



USEFUL KINKS 209 

benzine, apply tlie solder with a copper bit, and 
when the molten solder is covering the surface 
of the metal, scratch through the solder with a 
steel wire scratch-brush. By this means the 
oxide on the surface of the metal is broken up 
underneath the solder, which containing its own 
flux, takes up the oxide and enables the surface 
of the aluminum to be tinned properly. 

Small surfaces of aluminum can be soldered 
by the use of zinc and Venetian turpentine. 
Place the solder upon the metal together with 
the turpentine and heat very gently with a 
blowpipe until the solder is entirely melted. The 
trouble with this, as with other solders, is that 
it will not flow gently on the metal. Therefore 
large surfaces cannot be easily soldered. 

Another method is to clean the aluminum 
surfaces by scraping, and then cover with a 
layer of paraffine wax as a flux. Then coat the 
surfaces by fusion, with a layer of an alloy of 
zinc, tin and lead, preferably in the following 
proportions; Zinc fiYe parts, tin two parts, lead 
one part. 

The metallic surfaces thus prepared can be 
soldered together either by means of zinc or 
cadmium, or alloys of aluminum with these 
metals. In fact, any good soldering preparation 
will answer the purpose. 

A good solder for low-grade work is the fol- 
lowing: Tin 95 parts, bismuth five parts. 



210 USEFUL KINKS 

A good flux in all cases is either stearin, 
vaseline^ paraffine, copaiva balsam, or benzine. 

In the operation of soldering, small tools made 
of aluminum are used, which facilitate at the 
same time the fusion of the solder and its ad- 
hesion to the previously prepared surfaces. Tools 
made of copper or brass must be strictly avoided 
as they would form colored alloys with the 
aluminum and the solder. 

Aluminum Solder. This consists of 28 pounds 
of block tin, three and one-half pounds of lead, 
seven pounds of spelter, and 14 pounds of phos- 
phor-tin. The phosphor-tin should contain 10 
per cent of phosphorus. Clean off all the dirt 
and grease from the surface of the metal with 
benzine, apply the solder with a copper bit, and 
when the molten solder covers the metal, scratch 
through the solder with a wire scratch brush. 

Sweating Aluminum to Other Metals. First 
coat the aluminum surface to be soldered with a 
layer of zinc. On top of the zinc is melted a 
layer of an alloy of one part aluminum to two 
and one-half parts of zinc. The surfaces are 
placed together and heated until the alloy be- 
tween them is liquefied. 

Soldering Fluid. Take of scrap zinc or pure 
spelter about % pound, and immerse in a half- 
pint of muriatic acid. If the scraps completely 
dissolve add more until the acid ceases to bubble 
and a, small piece of metal remains. Let this 



USEFUL KIXKS 211 

stand for a day and then carefully pour oif the 
clear liquid, or filter it through a cone of blot 
ting paper. Add a teaspoonful of sal-ammoniac, 
and when thoroughly dissolved, the solution is 
ready for use. Depending on the materials to 
be soldered, the quantity of sal-ammoniac can 
be reduced. Its presence makes soldering very 
easy, but, unless the parts are well heated so as 
to evaporate the salt, the joints may rust. 

Etching on Iron or Steel. Take one-half ounce 
of nitric acid and one ounce of muriatic acid. 
Mix, shake well together, and it is ready for use. 
Cover the place you wish to mark with melted 
beeswax, when cold write the inscription plainly 
iin the wax clear to the metal with a. sharp in- 
strument, then apply the mixed acids with a 
feather, carefully filling each letter. Let it re- 
main from one to ten minutes, according to the 
appearance desired. Then throw on water, which 
stops the etching process and removes the wax. 

Soldering Solution. An excellent method of 
preparing resin for soldering bright tin is given 
as follows : Take one and one-half pounds of olive 
oil and one and one-half pounds of tallow and 12 
ounces of pulverized resin. Mix these ingredients 
and let them boil up. When this mixture has be- 
come cool, add one and three-eighths i^ints of 
water saturated with pulverized sal ammoniac, 
stirring constantly. 

Softening Cast Iron. To soften iron for drill- 



212 USEFUL KINKS 

ing, heat to a cherry-red, having it lie level in the 
fire. Then with tongs, put on a piece of brim- 
stone, a little less in size than the hole is to be. 
This softens the iron entirely th-rongh. Let it 
lie in the fire until cooled, when it is ready to drill. 

Suggestions how to Solder. Clean the parts 
thoroughly from all rust, grease or scale, then wet 
with prepared acid. Hold the soldering copper 
on each part until the article is well tinned and 
the solder has flowed to all parts. 

Watch-Makers' Oil that Will Never Corrode or 
Thicken. Take a bottle about half full of good 
olive oil and put in thin strips of sheet lead, ex- 
pose it to the sun for a month, then pour off the 
clear oil. The above is a very cheap way of mak- 
ing a first-class oil for any light machinery. 

Varnish for Copper. To protect copper from 
oxidation a varnish may be employed which is 
composed of carbon disulphide 1 part, benzine 1 
part, turpentine oil 1 part, methyl alchol 2 parts 
and hard copal 1 part. It is well to apply several 
coats of it to the copper. 

Glue for Iron. Put an equal amount by weight 
of finely powdered rosin in glue and it will ad- 
here firmly to iron or other metal surfaces. 

Soldering or Tinning Acid. Muriatic Acid 1 
pound, put into it all the zinc it will dissolve and 
1 ounce of Sal Ammoniac, add as much clear 
water as acid, it is then ready for use. 

Plaster of Paris. Common plaster that faiTQers 



USEFUL KINKS 213 

use to put on land and plaster of paris are the 
same thing, except plaster of paris is common 
plaster calcined. Many times it is difficult to get 
calcined plaster, and when it is procured it is 
badly adulterated with lime and unfit for many 
uses. To! calcine plaster, or in other words, to 
make common plaster so it will harden, you have 
but to take the plaster and put it in an iron kettle 
and place it over a slow fire, put no water in it. 
In a few moments it will begin to boil and will 
continue to do so until every particle of moisture 
is evaporated out of it. When it has stopped 
boiling take it off, and, when cold it is ready for 
use. Plaster treated in this way vf ill harden much 
quicker and harder than any which can be 
bought ready prepared. 

Hardening Small Articles. To harden small 
tools or articles that are apt to warp in hard- 
ening, heat very carefully, and insert in a, raw 
potato, then draw the temper as usual. 

Bluing Brass. Dissolve one ounce of antimony 
chloride in twenty ounces of water and add three 
ounces of pure hydrochloric acid. Place the 
wanned brass article into this solution until it 
has turned blue. Then wash it and dry in saw- 
dust. 

Drilling Glass. Take an old three-cornered file, 
one that is worn out will do, break it off and 
sharpen to a point like a. drill and place in a car- 
penter's brace. Have the glass fastened on a 



214 USEFUL KINKS 

good solid table' so there will be no danger of its 
breaking. Wet the glass at the point where the 
hole is to made with the following solution: 

Ammonia 61/2 drachms 

Ether 31/2 drachms 

Turpentine 1 ounce 

Keep the drill wet with the above solution and 
bore the hole part way from each side of the 
glass. 

Another solution is to dissolve a piece of gum 
camphor the size of a walnut in one ounce of tur- 
pentine. 

Another method is to use a steel drill hardened, 
but not drawn. Saturate spirits of turpentine 
with camphor and wet the drill. The drill should 
be ground with ^ long point and plenty of clear- 
ance. Eun the drill fast and with a light feed. 
In this manner glass can be drilled with small 
holes, up to 3-16 inch in diameter nearly as rapid- 
ly as cast steel. 

Cement for Pipe Joints. Mix 10 parts iron 
filings and 3 parts chloridel of lime to a paste by 
means of water. Apply to the joint and clamp 
up. It will be solid in 12 hours. 

Removing Stains. To remove Ink Stains, wash 
with pure fresh water, and apply oxalic acid. If 
this changes the stain to a red color, apply am- 
monia. To remove Iron Rust from White Fabrics, 
saturate the spots with lemon juice and salt and 
expose to the sun. 



USEFUL KINKS 215 

Weight of Castings. If yon liave a pattern 
made of soft pine, put together without nails, an 
iron casting made from it will weigh sixteen 
pounds to every pound of the pattern. If the 
casting is of brass, it will weigh eigiiteen pounds 
to every pound of tlie pattern. 

Ordering Taps and Dies. In ordering Taps and 
Dies, be sure and give the kind, exact size and 
thread wanted. Always remember you are writ- 
ing to a person who knows nothing of wliat is 
wanted, therefore make tlie order plain and ex- 
plicit. Never order a special Tap or Die if it can 
be avoided, a,s such will cost at least double that 
of Tegular sizes and threads. 

Tapping Nuts. Always use good Lard Oil in 
cutting threads with a die or tapping out nuts. 
Poor cheap oil will soon ruin both die and tap. 

Grindstones. Grindstones to grind tools should 
be run at a speed of about 800 feet per minute at 
its periphery, a 30-incli stone should be run about 
100 revolutions per minute. When used to grind 
carpenters' tools a speed of 600 feet at its peri- 
phery^, a 30-incli stone should therefore be run at 
75 revolutions per minute. 

White Metal for Bearings. White metal for 
bearings consists of 48 pounds of tin, 4 pounds 
of copper, and 1 pound of antimony. The copper 
and tin are melted first, and then the antimony 
is added. 

Marine Glue. One part of pure India rubber 



216 USEFUL KINKS 

dissolved in naplitlia. When melted add two 
parts of shellac. Melt until mixed. 

To Soften, Cast Iron. Heat the whole piece to 
a bright glow and gradually cool under a cover- 
dng of fine coal dust. Small objects should be 
packed in quantities, in a crucible in a furnace 
or open fire, under materials which when heated 
tO' a glow give out carbon to the iron. They 
should be heated gradually, and kept at a bright 
heat for an hour and allowed to cool slowly. The 
substances recommended to be added are cast- 
iron turnings, sodium carbonate or raw sugar. 
If only raw sugar is used, the quantity should not 
be too small. By this process it is said that cast 
liron may be made so soft that it can almost be 
cut with a pocket-knife. 

To Harden Files. To harden files dip the file 
in redhot lead, handle up. This gives a uniform 
heat and prevents warping. Eun the file endwise 
back and forth in a pan of salt water. , Set the 
file in a vise and straighten it while still warm. 

Leather Belts. A leather belt is more econo- 
mical in the end than a rubber one. Wheni buy- 
ing a leather belt it should be tested by doubling 
it up with the hair side out. If it should crack, 
reject it as it cannot realize the whole amount of 
power it should transmit. If it shows a spongy 
appearance it should be condemned at once, for 
it must be pliable as well as firm. The grain or 
hair side should be free from wrinkles and the 



USEFUL KINKS 217 

belt should be of uniform thickness; throughout 
its length. It should be tested for quality by im- 
mersing a small strip in strong vinegar. If the 
leather has been properly tanned and is of good 
quality^ it will remain in vinegar for weeks with- 
out alteration, excepting it will grow darker in 
color. If the leather has not been properly tamied 
the fiber will swell and the leather will become 
softened, turning it into a jelly-like mass. 

To Cement Rubber to Leather. Roughen both 
surfaces with a sharp piece of glass, apply on both 
a diluted solution of gutta percha in carbon bi- 
sulphide, and let the solution soak into the mate- 
rial. Then press upon each surface a skin of gutta 
percha about one-hundredth of an inch in thick- 
ness, between a pair of rolls. Unite the twoi sur- 
faces in a press that should be warm but not hot. 
In case a press cannot be used, dissolve 30 parts 
of rubber in 140 parts of carbon bisulphide, the 
vessel being placed on a water bath of a tempera- 
ture of 86 degrees Fahrenheit. Melt ten parts of 
rubber with fifteen parts of rosin and add 35 
parts of oil of turpentine. When the rubber has 
been completely dissolved, the two liquids may 
be mixed. The resulting cement must be kept 
well corked. 

Drilling Holes in Glass. Holes of any size de- 
sired may be drilled in glass by the following 
method: Get a small 3-comered file and grind 
the points from one corner and the bias from 



218 USEFUL KINKS 

the other and set the file in a brace, such as is 
used in boring wood. Lay tlie glass in which 
the holes are to be bored on a smooth surface 
covered with a blanket and begin to bore a hole. 
When a, slight impression is made on the 
glass, place a disk of putty around it and fill 
with turpentine to prevent too great heating by 
friction. Continue boring the hole, which will 
be as smooth as one drilled in wood with an 
auger. Do not press too hard on the brace while 
drilling. 

To Polish Brass. Smooth the brass with a fine 
file and run it with smooth fine grain stone, or 
with charcoal and water. When quite smooth 
and free from scratches, polish with pumice stone 
and oil, spirits of turpentine, or alcohol. 

How to Make a Soft Alloy. A soft alloy which 
will adhere tenaciously to metal, glass or porce- 
lain, and can also be used as a solder for articles 
which cannot bear a high degree of heat, is made 
as follows: 

Obtain copper-dust by precipitating copper 
from the sulphate by means of metallic zinc. 
Place from 20 to 36 parts of the copper-dust, ac- 
cording to the hardness desired, in a porcelain- 
lined mortar, and mix well with some sulphuric 
acid of a specific gravity of 1.85. Add to this paste 
70 parts of mercury, stirring constantly, and when 
thoroughly mixed, rinse the amalgam in warm 
water to remove the acid. Let cool from 10 to 



H^iiilBiiliilll 



USEFUL KINKS 219 

12 hours, after which time it will be hard enough 
to scratch tin. 

When ready to use it, heat to 707 degrees Fah- 
renheit and knead in an iron mortar till plastic. 
It can then be spread on any surface, and when 
it has cooled and hardened will adhere most ten- 
aciously. 



MEDICAL AID. 

Things to Do in Case of Sprains or Dislocations. 

The most important thing is to secure rest until 
ithe arrival of the surgeon. If the sprain is in the 
ankle or foot, place a folded towel around the 
part and cover with a bandage. Apply moist 
heat. The foot should be immersed in a bucket 
of hot water and more hot water added from time 
to time, so that it can be kept as hot as can be 
borne for fifteen or twenty minutes, after which 
a firm bandage should be aplied, by a surgeon, if 
possible, and the foot elevated. 

In sprains of the wrist, a straight piece of wood 
should be used as a splint, cover with cotton or 
wool to make it soft, and lightly bandage, and 
carry the arm in a^ sling. In all cases of sprains 
the results may be serious, and a surgeon should 
be obtained as soon as possible. After the acute 
symptoms of pain and swelling have subsided, it 
is still necessary that the joint should have com- 
plete rest by the use of a splint and bandage and 
such applications as the surgeon may direct. 

Simple dislocation of the fingers can be put in 
place by strong pulling, aided by a little pressure 
on the part of the bones nearest the joint. 

The best that can be done in most cases is to 
220 



MEDICAL AID 221 

put the part in the position easiest to the sufferer, 
and to apply cold wet cloths, while awaiting the 
arrival of a surgeon. 

To Remove Foreign Substances from the Eye. 
Take hold of the upper lid and turn it up so that 
the inside of the upper lid may be seen. Have the 
patient make several movements with the eye, 
first up, then down, to the right side and to the 
left. Then take a tooth-pick with a little piece 
of absorbent cotton wound around the end and 
moistened in cold water, and swab it out. , The 
foreign substance will adhere to the swab and 
the object will be removed from the eye without 
any trouble. 

In Case of Cuts. The chief points to be attend- 
ed to are: Arrest the bleeding. Eemove from the 
wound all foreign substances as soon as possible. 
Bring the wounded parts opposite to each other 
and keep them so. This is best done by means of 
strips of surgeon's plaster, first applied to one 
side of the wound and then secured to the other. 
These strips should not be too broad, and space 
must be left between the strips to allow any mat- 
ter to escape. Wounds too- extensive to be held 
together by plaster must be stitched by a surgeon, 
who should always be sent for in severe cases. 

Broken Limbs. To get at a broken limb or rib, 
the clothing must be removed, and it is essential 
that this should be done without injury to the 
patient. The simplest plan is to rip up the seams 



222 MEDICAL AID 

of such gariiients as are in the way. Shoes must 
always be cuti off. It is not imperatively necess- 
ary to do anything to a broken limb before the 
arrival of a doctor, except to keep it perfectly at 
rest. 

Wounds. If a wound be discovered in a part 
covered by the clothing, cut the clothing at the 
seams. Remove only sufficient clothing to un- 
cover and inspect the wound. 

All wounds should be covered and dressed as 
quickly as possible. If a severe bleeding should 
occur, see that this is stopped, if possible, before 
the wound is dressed. 

Treatment of Burns. In treating burns of a 
serious nature, the first thing to be done after the 
fire is extinguished should be to remove the cloth- 
ing. The greatest care must be exercised, as any- 
thing in^e pulling will bring the skin away. If 
the clothing is not thoroughly wet, be sure to 
saturate it with water or oil before attempting to 
remove it. 

If portions of the clothing will not drop off, 
allow them to remain. Then make a thick solu- 
tion of common baking soda and water, and dip 
soft cloths in it and lay them over the injured 
parts, and bandage them lightly to keep them 
in position. Have the solution near by, and the 
instant any part of a cloth shows signs of dry- 
ness, squeeze some of the solution on that part. 
Do not remove the' cloth, as total exclusion of the 



MEDICAL AID 223 

air is necessary, and little, if any^ pain, will be 
felt as long as the cloths are kept saturated. This 
may be kept up for several days, after which soft 
cloths dipped in oil may be applied, and' covered 
with cotton batting. If the feet are cold, apply 
heat and give hot water to drink, and if the bums 
are very serious send for a. doctor as soon as pos- 
sible. The presence of pain is a, good sign, show- 
ing that vitality is present. 

Bleeding. In case of bleeding, the person may 
become weak and faint, unless the blood is flow- 
ing actively. This is not a serious sign, and the 
quiet condition of the faint often assists nature in 
stopping the bleeding, by allowing the blood to 
clot and so block up any wound in a blood vessel. 

Unless the faint is prolonged or the patient is 
p^osing much blood, it is better not to relieve the 
faint condition. When in this state excitement 
should be avoided, and external warmth should 
be applied, the person covered with blankets, and 
bottles of hot water or hot bricks applied to the 
feet and arm-pits. 

Watch carefully if unconscious. 

If vomiting occurs, turn the patient's body on 
one side, with the head low, so that the matters 
vomited may not go into the lungs. 

Bleeding is of three kinds: From the arteries 
which lead from the heart. That which comes 
from the veins which take the bloodj back to the 
heart. That from the small veins which carry 



224 MEDICAL AID 

the blood to the surface of the body. In the first, 
the blood is bright scarlet and escapes as though 
it were being pumped. In the second, the blood 
is dark red and flows away in an uninterrupted 
stream. In the third, the blood oozes out. In 
some wounds all three kinds of bleeding occur at 
the same time. 

Carrying an Injured Person. In case of an in- 
jury where walking is impossible, and lying down 
is not absolutely necessary, the injured person 
may be seated in a chair, and carTied, or he may 
sit upon a board, the ends of which are carried 
by two men, around whose necks they should 
place his arms so as to steady himself. 

Where an injured person can, walk he will get 
much help by putting his arms over the shoulders; 
and round the* necks of two otherB, 



TABLES 



225 



M 
H 

s 

:?; 
o 

1 

w 
o 

O 

Eh 

« 

m 


1 
i 

s 

1 

S 

5 


Nominal 

Weight 

per 

Foot. 


1 


O lO O i^O rH CO LO ^ CO iX> CO t> l> GO 

CD tH TfH ^ Oi rH t- O CO 05 Ol CO TJH rH lO 

* rH 1-1 tH tH (?q Oq CO CO CO rtH TJH lO CO I>^ 


li 

O (D 


a 2J 
a " 

'>HGO 


o 
S 


dCOCOCO tH^O^CO OlQO'^'MOl 
<X>lOCOTtlTHLOt^Ot:^COt>.GO(>JOr-l 
'^TtHGO'^T-IOO<:OtOCOC<JrH000500 
TfH CO* Cq c4 Cq r-H rH tH tH rH i-H i-H »-H 


Is 


1^ 


05C01>.COO:iQOGOOiC010i— ICOlOOS"* 
r-liOTtiOOOOi^MGOt^t^aiTHiO'^CO 

c» o lo 1-H Oi CO lo CO oq th o o Oi oo i> 

CO CO <M* Oq tH tH tH tH tH tH tH tH 


i 

1 


1 


a* 


CO Oi TfH Oi CO as lo Tf oi t- GO CO 

iHCOCOOiCO^T-IOaiGOt-COCMCOU:) 

(M. c<ico^K:)coGoaiasTHc<icocooocM 

tH tH tH rH r-i O^ 


Is 
PI 

a 


a* 


iothoothcoco LOOicot^cooicoas 

t^COOiT-lt^COasCOt^rH^t^COCDt^ 
lOOSCOOiLOCOOOOi— ICOCOOiOCO 

'rHrHC<lc6'^l0CDt>G0'aiOTtll> 
rH tH tH 


"3 




lO t^ t^ lO Cq CO Oi Oi CO rH lO CO TH lO 
ODOqcoO^t-OTtfCOOiCqTf^COOCO 

t- c>q^ !>. TtH i-j Oi as as o 0-] co o lo go co 

* tH rH Oq CO* Co" Tjl lO t>I GO OS rH* G<J lO* ai 
rH tH 1— 1 tH 




"3 

s 

a 


1 

a 


as lo 1-1 i-H CO oq as ^ co th t^ -rti lo go 
Got^asoGOir^coLOTtiLOTficvicMast^ 

co^rHOScOTtiT— iast:^Ttic<J01>oqJ>. 

cq" CO* TjH* Tji lo CO i>" !>.* GO as* o* th th co' tjh 


"5 

a 


1 


c<!i>-o-i^coasTtHasio coi— icot^Go 

-^(MrHasGOCDlOCOCqi-HOSGOCOCOO 

THasl:^TtlC^qOGOcOTt^G<^asl:^lO^-^t^ 


coco^LOcot^i>-ooasooTHCMTfiio 

rH T— 1 T— 1 tH T— 1 rH 


0) 


s 

i 
o 


d 


COCOCOCOCOCOOlOlCqTHTHrHOOas 


1; 


3 


CD 

o 
a 


ut)in)ioioioioasasas -^-^oo 
aso^iasa^asasooooicqcMcocoTt^ 

O O q q O O rH rH ^^ 1-H rH rH tH tH rH 


B 

a 

S3 

s 


■3 




CO CO th (M oq go cq cq Tt^ 

lOOCOCOiHCOOOCOGOTHCOrHCOCOO 

oorHcoiOGoocqioi:^ooqu:>i:^oqi>. 

' rH r-H rH rH (M* Oq' Oq' Oq' CO* CO* CO* CO -*' ^* 


s 


o 
a 


^^\^;^ ^^\^;^ ^^^^;^ n^ 

rHrHrHrHOqoqOqCqCOCOCOCOTtlTtlUt 



226 



TABLES 



1 

(^ 
Eh 

<^ 
GO 

W 
OQ 

Q 

O 

Eh 
M 

1 


.2 

ft 

O 
5 


•Ai9J0g JO qoui 
jaa spBBjqi JO J8quirijs[ 


t^O0QOTt^■<tlT-ll— IrHiHOOCO 
O^iHrHrHTHrHrHrHTH 




1 

CM 


tH O5t~-L0O0TjHCX)O5O5«O 

oq TjH LO GO th <;o c<j ^^ 1:0 i>. lo 

* tH rH Oq Oq CO 16 J>^ 


'lOOJ 

-uoo 9did: JO mSu9T; 


1 


COCOT-HC^O^OCOOC^Ooi 
10 CO t^ ^ CM tH 


Length of 

Pipe per 

Square Foot 

of 


•90Bjjns 
IBaj;9:jai 


^ 

^ 


10 10 00 tH CO t^ 10 
iLoaicococo^<X)t>-T)H^Ttt 

THTHt^T— |iX>'Xit^COCOlOCsJ 
TtH01>^COT)HCOc4c<iTHTHTH 

T— 1 T— 1 


•90Bjjng 
IBUJ9:jxa 


^ 


LOt^t^t^-^iH COQOtH 
Ttlt^lO^COOOrHOC^IOS 

^^ CO uo ':o 05 CO <:o CO 
aj t>^ 10 TjH co" oq cq oq th th rn 


1 

1 


•IB^9H 


d 
a* 


t^ Oi CO Cq t^ TtH 
TH^<X)aiCN^lOQ0^:^Tt^O0C0 

t^c<i:ortHcoai'X)aib»OTtH 
OtHi— icqco^':Di:^Ot^Cs| 

i-H tH Cq 


•IBnia^ni 




CO tH t^ 00 CO CO 
tSTjHTHTtHCOOQCOQOCOTjHQO 
lOOOlOCOCOOtiCOiOCOOO 
OrHTHCOlOQOT)HOCOt>.CO 
rH Oq CO T}H l>^ 


•IBUja^xa: 


5" 


OiOiOOTtHCOOO^lO oqrH 

oqcqLOiocoiococococnioq 

rH Oq CO 10 00 CO tH 00 TJH TJH CO 

th oq' c4 TjH co" oi 


a5 
o 

CD 

a 

O 


•I'Baa9;ni 


o 


oOTtioqr>-OioqiOTHTticoco 
TtiTjHLO>oooaicocoaiioco 

00 rH 10 Oi 10 C>q CO TJH t- CO 
* tH tH tH g4 CO* tJH LO CO t>I 05 


•{Buja^xa 




oqcorHOiaiT-HioairHoqco 
ir-osoqcooicorHcococooi 
oq CO i-H CO oq t-h oq oi tjh Oi 

th" rH cq* cq' CO ^ l6 10 t-' oi 


•ss9U5[Oiqj, iBuiuiOK 


a 


00 QO rH Oi CO ^ LO Tfl TJH t^ 
COOOOiOrHCOTtH-^tOOiH 

th th th th rH tH cq oq 


a 
s 


•a9:^9uiBia 
IBaa9!}ui 

9^13 UI 

-ixojddy 


o 



Tfi Tti CO ^ 00 th t^ 00 i>- 
t^coosoqcviTtHooi-tcococo 
oq CO TtH CO oq co co tjh 

rH th th oq" oq' CO 


•lBnj9;xa 
IBmoy 


02 

1 


10 10 10 UO LO 
O-^t^-^JOrHCO t^l:^ 
-rfiiocoooococooicooqio 

' tH tH rH tH oq* Oq* CO 


lBaj9;ai 
[BniinoK 




\cc\*\co\nV1* \*\« \n 
h\ h\ m\ h\ w\ h\ h\ h\ 

th th th oq oq CO 



TABLES 



22^ 



1 

1 

< 

CO 

s" 

Eh 
CO 

H 

§ 

M 

Eh 
K 



O 


_o 
a; 

3 

1 

1 


•Avajog JO qoni 
J8d sp^ajqi, JO aaqcmiN: 


00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 


"iOO^J J9d 


73 

1 


0':C050'X>l:^t^O<XiC<loo 
O '^O Tt; lO t- Oq ^^ t- O O Ci 

ai d oq '^ 00* CO 00 CO d lo oo* 

1— (tHi— li—iCvlOICO'^TtlTtl 


•:>ooj 
oiqno 9 no SniuiB} 
-ubo adid JO qj5u97 


1 


r>-THG<> oofMooas'^THi:^ 

L0C0O0105t^Q0C\|C0L0C<l 
T^' tH ai I> TjH CO* C4 C<i rH tH tH 

1—1 1—1 


Length of 

Pipe per 

Square Foot 

of 


•aoBjjng 
lBaa9:}UI 


^ 
s 


t^TtHTflLOCO'tlt^OqOOTtiiH 
OOiOOt-CDlOTtH'^^COCOCO 
1—1 


•90Bjjns 
lBUJ9:ixa 


Em 


lOOiTfit^t^i— iCOC^iOiOOS 
iO^'X>001:^0-:t^OiiOC<iai 

aiooi>-':oioto^cocococq 


OS 

■< 


•lBC^9K 


d 
CO 


Oi rtH Tti «£> -tl <Xi CO TJH 1-1 Oi 
t-^t^lr^rHOOCvlOOCOCvIOt^ 

<:0 rH CO CO lO Oi CO O CT5 Tt^ o 

G<i CO* CO ^* to* CO* 00 o* rA CO ^ 

1—t 1—1 1—1 1—1 


•IBUJ9:tai 


H 

a' 
CO 


t^ 1— 1 00 00 oi CO 00 

ODCOCOOiOOCOTjHCOCOCOOS 

00 !>■ 05 o^ oq t>- o t>. 00 o o 
05 c^i lo oi 00* 00* d c4 00 lo CO 

i-lT-iT-(C<lC0lOCOl>Oii— 1 

1—1 


•IBai9ixa: 


a 


CO-*lOCOCM-ThCO COTtit- 
C0OC0Olr-C0C^lC0C0C0t> 
lOaiCOCO-tCO-^t^D^rtHCO 

c4 lo d r)H ^* LO 00* G<J d 00 t^ 

1— li— li— ICMCOTfiLOt^OlOCvl 
tH 1—1 


o 

3 


•IBaj9;ai 


1 

1 


coooc<iaiTHcococor>oo 

TjiTtlCO'^lLOCOlr^t^t^LO 
rH CO 1-H 00 O O O O -tl lO t:^ 

rH oq Tt^* »o* d oq lo 00* rH* -^' !>.' 

1— li— lrHrHrHC<)(MOqC0COC0 


•IBaj9;xa: 


1 


COJ:-001^COlOcO00O-lTt^lO 

cocoot^r-iLoaicoi>-i— luo 

iOrHl>.TiH00aiO<:Mt:^aiO 

(M^tiiot^dcot^dcocdd 

1— It— li-ii— lO^CvlCMCOCOCO^ 


•ss9ir5[Oiq 


J, [BUllUOK 


tl 


COC^COOS iHCvI^tiCO 

cqcoTtiioooofMTtico 
cqoqcocMCNjcocococo 


s 

1 


•J9^9XnBia 

lBaJ9:;aj 

9!;BUI 

-ixojddv 


X) 


OOCOOOiOiOCO^Mt^Oi 

-t^oqo-t^cooqoocoi-i 

lOOiOOOOOlOiO 

CO ^* ^* id CO t-* !>.* 00* d rA oq 

1— 1 rH 1— 1 


■lBaj9:jxa 


i 


CO lO LO lO lO 

CO CM C^l C<1 C<1 lO lO lO 

^ lo ^ iq CO CO CO CO j>. !>. t^ 

-<:tHTiHlOl6cOI>^o6ddrHo4 
rH rH tH 


IBaj9!;ui 

tBOlUIOK 


J3 


CO^^lOCOt-OOOSOrHCsl 

T-( rH rH J 



228 



TABLES. 













05 -^ -^ 05 CS l> CO CQ J> IC I> r^ ""^ GO 






•:^ooj jaa 


a 


C5iOJ>OCOt-i COOCDC^-^OSJOlC 






(mSpM IBUtuioK 


g 


" tH T-I 05 CO CO lO i> O (?-■? Tjl O go" 










(g 


l-H tH T-I C? C5 


1^ 






OlCO COOiitOCOsOlOOS 00 i>" CO "^ 






•aoBjjns 
lBna8!}ni 


^ 


CO 00 ?>• -^ O tH O iC t- "^ C5 CO Oi to 






0) 


O Oi O O T-I O O lO 05 O CO T-I }> o 






00 ci OS i> lo Tji CO C5 th th 1-1 ,-i T-I 






sg 






T— 1 1—1 






o» 












a 5 




• 


COiOJ>'t-t-'«:H-i— 1 OOOOt— I1005t-i> 
C0J>iO^C0OOTHO0505iOxH00l- 






•aoBjjng 


"S 






IBuaa^xa 




-* O ?D lO CO 05 CO o !:o CO O 05 00 O lO 


i 




§{» 


05 1-" id -^' CO c^' c^' <?i T-H T-H t-h 






fl 


O T-I Oi CO ^ GO CO C5 lO CO 05 lO IC 


Pm 






•IBJ9K 




OOCOt-I(?5t-I'^05G0050010tH10050 
OTHC-lCO^COGOO-^C^Ot-^T-iiO 


o 
^ 


OD 


i 








T-i 1-i OCi CO CO '^' ?D 00* 




fl 


CO QO 05 tH C5 tH CO IC 05 0» CO 05 CO J> 


iri. 


1 


•^ 






C0C0C0C0lOT-IJ>i0C0OC0i0^05C0 
O O ^ (?l ^ i> <M 3> Ci (M lO GO -5 T-J OS 


02 


t-i 


'IBUja^ni 






i 




rt 


T-I T-i 0? "*' CO 00 T-i 00* id 


^ 


OQ 




CO 


t-HtHG^ 


Eh 


1 










;ri 






^^§ioSSo05COOC^COOOt2 


X 


Eh 




fl 


H 




•tBnJ9?X[J 


'"^ 


t-ic5C0 10GOCOtHOO-*-*C0 10 05CO-* 


5 






d* 


T-I c;i ci TjH* CO* 05* (M* id ^* -*■ 


h5 


1 






CO 


t-<tH 05C0 






a: 


'^'^COCOCQOOCO-rHCOCOiOOiCO^ 


Eh 


'ts 


q3 




o; 


-^O^C^OT-iQOOSOSC-t-OO^OSiMCO 


W 


Q 


1 


•IBnj9:jni 


J3 


CO OS CO i> CO OS OS CO O « O iO OS T-| o 








* T-i T-I C^" C5 CO '^ CO* J> OS* O T-I id 00* 


< 


ID 




.-1 


T-I T—l T— 1 T— 1 




a 






C5COT-lOSOST-iiOOST-<GQCOCOi>i>CO 




O 


S3 




tD 


l-OS05COOSCOT-iCDCOCOOSCOCOi>T-i 
ffiC0T-lC0C5T-l<?50STtlOO10rH-^00 


^ 


0) 


2 


•IBOjaijxa 


Si 


O 


3 


o 




1 


th* T-I (m" c^' CO Tjl id id t-* OS o 05 ^' j> d 


l-H 

Eh 






T-I tH T-I TH 05 




)SnBO 


d 


X ^ ^ X o8 


w 




8JIaJ 


(jsajBaM 


;?; 


05t-iOOSOOJ>COCD10 05tHOOOO 


Ci5 

P 










T-I -^H T-< 


"ssa 


a5[0iqx 


S 


CO J> OS l> 05 tH CO T-I -* T-I tH lO l> 


Oh 






X3 


0505^iOOOOS0 05 00005-*t-CO 




IB 


UIUIO^ 


o 


tH T-I 1-^^ T-J T-< T-I T-I 05 05 05 00 CO CO CO -^ 


^ 








S 






*J819UIBia 


w 


iO-'^t-iOICOt-iOJtJHCOIOOIOOGOCO 








IBUJ8:)UI 


0) 


O0S05'^C0i0t-0SC0T-i0Sl0T-iT-itC 








9:jBUI 


05 05 ^ iq t- OS 05 ^_ OS CO '00 CO 00 00 t- 






1 


-TxoJddv 


C3 


T-I T-I tH 05 05* CO CO* -"^il id 




«; 


lO lO lO iO lO CO lO 






•tBaj9:jxa 


X3 


O ^ t- ■<* lO tH CD i>i> CO 05 






.5 


IBrnoy 


"^lOCOOOOCOCOOSCOGOlO lOlOCO 






Q 




G 


■ T-I tH T-I T-I 05* 05 CO ^' ^^ id CD 


•[Bajg^ui 


J3 


x^xx^ x^ X X 








IBUIUIOH 


a 


THT-lT-l05C5COCOTtHlCCD 



TABLES 



229 



s 

Eh 

en 

1-3 
W 
P 
O 

Q 

Eh 
02 

Q 

<! 

iz; 

§ 

t—i 

EH 

w 

§ 


.2 

'cc 

a 

s 

p 

GC 

O 

1 




1 


TfH lo cvi CO CO lo 00 cq iH 

l^TtH«0<MTftO:0l0t^Tt^rH,-l 

th cq CO lo CO OS CO GO c<J i>I 00 CO 

1-1 T-H C<) C<1 CO lO 




51 
Is 

tuOS 


•aoBjjng 




t^oioot^i— iT-tcoo^cot^o-rt^ 

i^^OrHi— (^Ot^t^OrHTjHOO 

cooiocoioiiOTHco^i^^ast^. 

lO 05 <d rJH CO* Cq Oq tH rH tH 

T— 1 




•aoBjjns 
lBaia;xa 


1 


-^COOOr-IOOqCSlOTtHOOt^ 
lO CD Oi CO O CO CO O 05 GO CO lO 
'<^* Co" Cq Oq Oi rH iH rH 




93 


•Ib;8k 




t> l> t^ Oi to CD CO ^ Oq CD 

ooqoo^ocot^cot-QOT^o 

lO !>. O to 05 CD O to !>. rH CO 00 

* rH rH rH (N TJH kO CO q6 rH lO 

■r-\ rH 




•IBUjajni 


a 


t>.OiTHlO TtiOit^rtiTt^lOCO 
-^ICOt-rHCOrfHrHOiOJC^CDCD 
O rH oq CO 05 !>. TJH o t- I>. Oi CD 

rH (M* '^ >0 1>^ Oi 00 

rH rH 




•IBuaajxa 


02 


rt^CDOOrt^lO (MrHCDTtiCDOq 
iOCDiOCOCOCOa5(MCDOOI>- 

LOoocorHooTtiTticoioaico-^ 
rH cq oq TiH CD Oi c4 to ^' -^ 

rH rH Oq CO 




1 

3 


•pajajai 




CD CO rtH 00 TtH CO ic CO cq TtH lo 

COOq-^QOTHOOT-lt^COlOCOrH 

t^COQ01>--^CDLOrHlOOOt>-CO 

* rH rH* Cq* CO TtH* lO 1>* 00 OJ c4 lO 




•IBUja^xa 


1 
1 


OiOirHLOairHC<)COC01:^l>-CO 
C0OiC0rHCOCDC0O5COC01>-rH 
COCqrHCqOiTtlOOiLOrHTtlOO 

oq CO* rjH lo lo t>-" 05 o" oq* TjH* t>^ o 
■t-{ T-{ T-\ T-< n^ 




8JIA4 




d 


o§l Ixl 

rH rH O O O O l—oX "nX --H»\ ^X 




•ssarnioiqx 

IBUtUlOK 


1 
1 


00 rt< TfH 00 CD oq o 00 c<j oq to 

05rH<:D00OTtHCDO'*00l0t^ 

cqcococo-*TfiiocococDi>oo 




1 

03 

s 


•jojaniBia 
IBuia^rii 

-ixojddv 


1 


Tt^C>qi>-lO00rHlOTt^CDCDC0lO 
TiH(:>qoooooo05iooOi-icocDl:^ 
cq^tiioooo-^t^oqi^rHooo 

* rH* rH rH Oq* Oq' CO* ^* TjH 




•IBUja^jxa: 


1 


lO lO lO CO to 
rfitOrHco i>-t- cocq 

00 O CO CO O^^ CO OD to ^ to to CD 
* rH rH rH rH oq oq* Co' TJH TjH to CD 




•IBaaa^ui 
IBUiraoN 




rHrHrHOqOqCOCO'^tOCD 





230 



TABLES 



Table Giving Velocity of Flow of Water 

In Feet per Minute, Through Pipes of Various Sizes, for 

Varying Quantities of Flow. 



Gallons 

per Minute. 


3-4 
inch. 


1 inch. 


1 1-4 
inch. 


1 1-2 
inch. 


2 inch. 


2 1-2 
inch. 


3 inch. 


4 inch. 


5 


218 


122^ 


78^ 


54i 


30^ 


19^ 


133^ 


7% 


10 


436 


245 


157 


109 


61 


38 


27 


15% 


15 


653 


367f 


235f 


163^ 


91i 


581- 


40% 


23 


20 


872 


490 


314 


218 


122 


78 


54 


30% 


25 


1090 


612^ 


392^ 


272i 


152i 


97i 


67X 


38% 


30 




735 


451 


327 


183 


117 


81 


46 


35 




857^ 


5m 


381i 


213i 


136i 


94X 


53% 


40 




980 


628 


436 


244 


156 


108 


61% 


45 




1102^ 


706^ 


490^ 


274i 


175i 


121% 


69 


50 






785 


545 


305 


195 


135 


76% 


75 






1177i 


sm 


457i 


292i 


202% 


115 


100 








1090 


610 


380 


270 


153% 


125 










7621- 


487i 


337% 


191% 


150 










915 


585 


405 


230 


175 










1067i 


682i 


472% 


268% 


200 










1220 


780 


540 


306% 



Table Giving Loss in Pressure 

Due to Friction, in Pounds, per Square Inch, for Pipe 

100 Feet Long. 



Gallons 
Discharged 
per Minute. 



5 

10 

15 

20 

25 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

75 

100 

125 

150 

175 

200 



3-4 
inch. 



3.3 
13.0 

28.7 
50.4 
78.0 



1 inch. 



0.84 
3.16 
6.98 
12.3 
19.0 
27.5 
37.0 
48.0 



1 1-4 
inch. 



0.31 
1.05 
2.38 
4.07 
6.40 
9.15 
12.4 
16.1 
20.2 
24.9 
56.1 



1 1-2 
inch. 



0.12 
0.47 
0.97 
1.66 
2.62 
3.75 
5.05 
6.52 
8.15 
10.0 
22.4 
39.0 



2 inch. 



0.12 

0.27 
0.42 
0.67 
0.91 
1.26 
1.60 
2.01 
2.44 
5.32 
9.46 
14.9 
21.2 
28.1 
37.5 



2 1-2 
inch. 



0.06 
0.13 
0.21 
0.30 
0.42 
0.51 
0.62 
0.81 
1.80 
3.20 
4.89 
7.0 
9.46 
12.47 



3 inch. 



0.03 

0.10 
0.12 
0.14 
0.17 
0.27 
0.35 
0.74 
1.31 
1.99 
2.88 
3.85 
5.02 



4 inch. 



0.03 
0.05 

0.06 
0.07 
0.09 
0,21 
0.33 
0.51 
0.69 
0.95 
1.22 



TABLES 



231 





Tensile Strength 


OF Bolts. 


Diameter 

of Bolt 

in Inches. 


Area at 
Bottom 

of 
Thread. 


At 7,000 lbs. 

per square 

inch. 


At 10.000 

lbs. per 

square 

inch. 


At 12,000 

lbs. per 

square 

inch. 


At 15,000 

lbs. per 

square 

inch. 


At 20,000 

lbs. per 

square 

inch. 


X 


.125 


875 


1,250 


1,500 


1,875 


2,500 


% 


.196 


1,372 


1,960 


2,350 


2,940 


3,920 


% 


.3 


2,100 


3,000 


3,600 


4,500 


6,000 


% 


.42 


2,940 


4,200 


5,040 


6,300 


8,400 


1 


.55 


3,850 


5,500 


6,600 


8,250 


11,000 


IX 


.69 


4,830 


6,900 


8,280 


10,350 


13,800 


IX 


.78 


5,460 


7,800 


9,300 


11,700 


15,600 


1% 


1.06 


7,420 


10,600 


12,720 


15,900 


21,200 


IX 


1.28 


8,960 


12,800 


15,360 


19,200 


25,600 


IX 


1.53 


10,710 


15,300 


18,360 


22,950 


30,600 


IX 


1.76 


12,320 


17,600 


21,120 


26,400 


35,200 


IX 


2.03 


14,210 


20,300 


24,360 


30,450 


40,600 


2 


2.3 


16,100 


23,000 


27,600 


34,500 


46,000 


2X 


3.12 


21,840 


31,200 


37,440 


46,800 


62,400 


2X 


3.7 


25,900 


37,000 


44,400 


55,500 


74,000 



The breaking strength of good American bolt iron is usually 
taken at 50,000 pounds per square inch, with an elongation of 
15 per cent before breaking. It should not set under a strain 
of less than 25,000 pounds. The proof strain is 20,000 pounds 
per square inch, and beyond this amount iron should never 
be strained in practice. 



232 



TABLES 



Table of 


THE Properties of Saturated Steam. 


Gauge 
pres- 
sure in 
lbs. per 
sq. in. 


Temper- 
ature in 
degrees 
P. 


heat 
units 
from 
water at 
32P P. 


Heat 

units in 

liquid 

from 32° 

F. 


Heat of 
vaporiza- 
tion in 
heat 
units. 


Density 

of weight 

of leu. ft. 

in lbs. 


Volume 
of 1 lb. in 
cubic feet 


Weight 

of 1 cu. 

ft. of 

water. 





212.00 


1146.6 


180.8 


965.8 


0.03760 


26.60 


59.76 
59.64 


10 


239.36 


1154.9 


208.4 


946.5 


0.06128 


16.32 


59.04 


20 


258.68 


1160,8 


227.9 


932.9 


0.08439 


11.85 


58.50 


30 


273.87 


1165.5 


243.2 


922.3 


0.1070 


9.347 


58.07 


40 


286.54 


1169.3 


255.9 


913.4 


0.1292 


7.736 


57.69 


50 


297.46 


1172.6 


266.9 


905.7 


0.1512 


6.612 


57.32 


55 


302.42 


1174.2 


271.9 


902.3 


0.1621 


6.169 


57.22 


60 


307.10 


1175.6 


276.6 


899.0 


0.1729 


5.784 


57.08 


65 


311.54 


1176.9 


281.1 


895.8 


0.1837 


5.443 


56.95 


70 


315 77 


1178.2 


285.6 


892.7 


0.1945 


5.142 


56.82 


75 


319.80 


1179.5 


289.8 


889.8 


0.2052 


4.873 


56.69 


80 


323.66 


1180.6 


293.8 


886.9 


0.2159 


4.633 


56.59 


85 


327.36 


1181.8 


297.7 


884.2 


0.2265 


4.415 


56.47 


90 


330.92 


1182.8 


301.5 


881.5 


0.2371 


4.218 


56.36 


95 


334.35 


1183.9 


305.0 


879.0 


0.2477 


4.037 


56.25 


100 


337.66 


1184.9 


. 308.5 


876.5 


0.2583 


3.872 


56.18 


105 


340.86 


1185.9 


311.8 


874.1 


0.2689 


3.720 


56.07 


110 


343.95 


1186.8 


315.0 


871.8 


0.2794 


3.580 


55.97 


115 


346.94 


1187.7 


318.2 


869.6 


0.2898 


3.452 


55.87 


120 


349.85 


1188.6 


321.2 


867.4 


0.3003 


3.330 


55.77 


125 


352.68 


1189.5 


324.2 


865.3 


0.3107 


3.219 


55.69 


130 


355.43 


1190.3 


327.0 


863.3 


0.3212 


3.113 


55.58 


135 


358. 10 


1191.1 


329.8 


861.3 


0.3315 


3.017 


55.52 


140 


360.70 


1191.9 


332.5 


859.4 


0.3420 


2.924 


55.44 


145 


363.25 


1192.8 


335.2 


857.5 


0.3524 


2.838 


55.36 


150 


365.73 


1193.5 


337.8 


855.7 


0.3629 


2.756 


55.29 


155 


368.62 


1194.3 


340.3 


853.9 


0.3731 


2.681 


55.22 


160 


370.51 


1195.0 


342.8 


852.1 


O.r.835 


2.608 


55.15 


165 


372.83 


1195.7 


345.2 


850.4 


0.15939 


2.539 


55.07 


170 


375.09 


1196.3 


347 6 


848.7 


0.4--043 


2.474 


54.99 


175 


377.31 


1197.0 


349.9 


847.1 


0.4147 


2.412 


54. ^j3 

54.86 


180 


379.48 


1197.7 


352.2 


845.4 


0.4251 


2.353 


185 


381.60 


1198.3 


354.4 


843.9 


0.4353 


2.297 


54.79 


190 


383.70 


1199.0 


356.6 


842.3 


0.4455 


2.244 


54.73 
54.66 


195 


385.75 


1199.6 


358.8 


840.8 


0.4559 


2.193 


200 


387.76 


1200.2 


360.9 


839.2 


0.4663 


2.145 


54.60 
54.27 


225 


397.36 


1203.1 


370.9 


832.2 


0.5179 


1.930 


250 


406.07 


1205.8 


380.1 


825.7 


0.5699 


1.755 


54.03 


275 


414.22 


1208.3 


388.5 


819.8 


0.621 


1.609 


53.77 


300 


421.83 


1210.6 


396.5 


814.1 


0.674 


1.483 


53.54 



TABLES 



233 



Chimneys. 




i 


HEIGHTS IN FEET. 1 


Area 


Xi 


1 


Square 
Feet. 


p 


75 


80 


85 


90 


95 100 110 


120 


130 


140 


150 


175 


200 






Q 


COMMERCIAL HORSE-POWER. 


3.14 


24 


75 


78 


81 






















3.69 


26 


90 


92 


95 


98 




















4.28 


28 




106 


110 


114 


117 


120 
















4.91 


30 




122 


127 


130 


133 


137 
















5.59 


32 






144 


149 


152 


156 


164 














6.31 


34 






162 


168 


171 


176 


185 














7.07 


36 








188 


192 


198 


208 


215 












8.73 


40 










237 


244 


257 


267 


279 










10.56 


44 










287 


296 


310 


322 


337! 








13.57 


48 












352 


370 


384 


400 


413 








15.90 


54 












445 


468 


484 


507 


526 








19.63 


60 














577 


600 


627 


650 


672 






23.76 


66 














697 


725 


758 


784 


815 






28.27 


72 
















862 


902 


931 


969 


1044 




38.48 


84 
















1173 


1229 


1270 


1319 1422 




50.27 


96 


















1584 


1660 


1725{1859 


1983 


63.62 


108 


















2058 


2102 


218112852 


2511 


78.54 


120 




















2596 


2693 2904 


3100 



Reduction of Chimney Draft by Long Flues. 


Total Length of 
Flues, in feet. 


50 


100 


200 


400 


600 


800 


1000 


2000 
85 


Chimney Draft, in 
per cent. 


100 


93 


79 


66 


58 


52 


48 



234 



TABLES 



Area of Circles. ] 


Diam. 


Area. 


Diam. 


Area. 


Diam. 


Area. 


Diam. 


Area. 


y^ 


0.0133 


10 


78.54 


30 


706.86 


65 


3818.3 


X 


0.0491 


lOK 


86.59 


31 


754.76 


66 


3431.3 


^ 


0.1104 


11 


95.03 


33 


804.34 


67 


3535.6 


% 


0.1963 


UK 


103.86 


33 


855.30 


68 


8631.6 


u 


0.3068 


13 


113.09 


34 


907.93 


69 


3789.3 


H 


0.4418 


13K 


133.71 


35 


963.11 


70 


8848.4 


H 


0.6013 


13 


133.73 


86 


1017.8 


71 


3959.3 




0.7854 


13^ 


143.13 


37 


1075.3 


73 


4071.5 


^yi 


0.9940 


14 


153.93 


88 


1134.1 


78 


4185.4 


IX 


1.337 


14>^ 


165.13 


39 


1194.5 


74 


4800.8 


IH 


1.484 


15 


176.71 


40 


1356.6 


75 


4417.8 


1>^ 


1.767 


15K 


188.69 


41 


1830.3 


76 


4536,4 


IH 


3.073 


16 


301.06 


43 


1885.4 


77 


4656.6 


IX 


3.405 


IQ/z 


313.83 


43 


1453.3 


78 


4778.3 


IH 


3.761 


17 


336.98 


44 


1530.5 


79 


4901.6 


3 


3.141 


17K 


340.53 


45 


1590.4 


80 


5036.5 


2X 


3.976 


18 


354.46 


46 


1661.9 


81 


5153.0 


2>^ 


4.908 


18K 


368.80 


47 


1784.9 


83 


5381.0 


2X 


5.939 


19 


383.53 


48 


1809.5 


88 


5410.6 


3 


7.068 


19K 


398.64 


49 


1885.7 


84 


5541.7 


3X 


8.395 


30 


314.16 


50 


1968.5 


85 


5674.5 


3>^ 


9.631 


30K 


380.06 


51 


3043.8 


86 


5808.8 


3X 


11.044 


31 


346.36 


53 


3133.7 


87 


5944.6 


4 


13.566 


31 K 


363.05 


53 


3306.1 


88 


6083.1 


4>^ 


15.904 


33 


380.13 


54 


3390.3 


89 


6331.1 


5 


19.635 


33 >^ 


397.60 


55 


3375.8 


90 


6861.7 


5>^ 


33.758 


33 


415.47 


56 


3463.0 


91 


6503.9 


6 


38.374 


33K 


433.73 


57 


3551.7 


93 


6647.6 


6>^ 


33.183 


34 


453.39 


58 


3643.0 


93 


6793.9 


7 


38.484 


34 >^ 


471.43 


59 


3733.9 


94 


6939.8 


7K 


44.178 


35 


490.87 


60 


3837.4 


95 


7088.3 


8 


50.365 


36 


530.93 


61 


3933.4 


96 


7388.3 


8K 


56.745 


37 


573.55 


63 


3019.0 


97 


7889.8 


9 


63.617 


38 


615.75 


63 


3117.3 


98 


7543.9 


„J„¥- 


70.883 


39 


660.53 


64 


.3316.9 


99 


7697.7 



To compute the area of a diameter greater than any in the 
above table: 

Rule. — Divide the dimension by 2, 3, 4, etc., if practicable, 
until it is reduced to a quotient to be found in the table, 
then multiply the tabular area of the quotient by the square 
of the factor. The product will be the area required. 

Example.— What is area of diameter of 150? 150 h- 5 = 30. 
Tabular area of 30 = 706.86 which X 25 = 17,671.5 area required. 



TABLES 



235 







Circumference of 


Circles. 






Diam. 


Circum. 


Diam. 


Circum. 


Diam. 


Circum. 


Diam. 


Circum. 


% 


.3937 


10 


31.41 


30 


94.24 


65 


304.3 


% 


.7854 


lOK 


32.98 


31 


97.38 


66 


307.3 


u 


1.178 


11 


34.55 


32 


100.5 


67 


310.4 


% 


1.570 


11>^ 


36.12 


33 


103.6 


68 


313.6 


H 


1.963 


13 


37.69 


34 


106.8 


69 


316.7 


Ya 


3.356 


12>^ 


39.37 


'35 


109.9 


70 


319.9 


^ 


3.748 


13 


40.84 


36 


113.0 


71 


333.0 




3.141 


13K 


43.41 


37 


116.2 


72 


236.1 


^yi 


3.534 


14 


43.98 


38 


119.3 


73 


339.3 


IX 


3.937 


14>^ 


45.55 


39 


122.5 


74 


333.4 


1^ 


4.319 


15 


47.13 


40 


125.6 


75 


335.6 


i>^ 


4.713 


15K 


48.69 


41 


138.8 


76 


338.7 


\% 


5.105 


16 


50.26 


43 


131.9 


77 


341.9 


1^ 


5.497 


16K 


51.83 


43 


135.0 


78 


345.0 


1^ 


5.890 


17 


53.40 


44 


138.3 


79 


348.1 


2 


6.383 


17>^ 


54.97 


45 


141.3 


80 


351.3 


3^ 


7.068 


18 


56.54 


46 


144.5 


81 


354.4 


2>^ 


7.854 


18K 


58.11 


47 


147.6 


83 


357.6 


2^ 


8.639 


19 


59.69 


48 


150.7 


83 


360.7 


3 


9.434 


19K 


61.26 


49 


153.9 


84 


363.8 


3X 


10.31 


20 


62.83 


50 


157.0 


85 


367.0 


3K 


10.99 


20K 


64.40 


51 


160.3 


86 


370.1 


3^ 


11.78 


21 


65.97 


52 


163.3 


87 


373.3 


4 


13.56 


21 K 


67.54 


53 


166.5 


88 


376.4 


4>^ 


14.13 


33 


69.11 


54 


169.6 


89 


379.6 


5 


15.70 


22K 


70.68 


55 


173.7 


90 


382.7 


5K 


17.37 


23 


72.25 


56 


175.9 


91 


285.8 


6 


18.84 


23 >^ 


73.82 


57 


179.0 


93 


389.0 


6^ 


30.43 


24 


75.39 


58 


183.2 


93 


392.1 


7 


31.99 


24 >^ 


76.96 


59 


185.3 


94 


295.3 


•7^ 


33.56 


25 


78.54 


60 


188.4 


95 


298.4 


8 


35.13 


26 


81.68 


61 


191.6 


96 


301.5 


8K 


36.70 


27 


84.82 


62 


194.7 


97 


304.7 


9 


38.27 


28 


87.96 


63 


197.9 


98 


307.8 


9K 


39.84 


29 


91.10 


64 


201.0 


99 


311.0 



To compute the circumference of a diameter greater than 
any in the above table: 

Rule. — Divide the dimension by 2, 3, 4, etc., if practicable, 
until it is reduced to a diameter to be found in table. Take 
the tabular circumference of this diameter, multiply it by 2, 
3, 4, etc., according as it was divided, and the product will be 
the circumference required. 

Example. — What is the circumference of a diameter of 125? 
125 -5- 5 = 25. Tabular circumference of 25 = 78.54, 78.54 X 
5 = 892.7, circumference required. 



236 



TABLES 



Properties of Metj^t,s. 1 




Melting Point. 

Degrees 
Fahrenheit. 


Weight 

in Lbs. 

per Cubic 

Foot. 


Weight 

in Lbs. 

per Cubic 

Inch. 


Tensile 

Strength in 

Pounds per 

Square Inch. 


Aluminum 


1140 


166.5 


.0963 


15000-30000 


Antimony 


810-1000 


421.6 


.2439 


1050 


Brass (average) 


1500-1700 


523.2 


.3027 


30000-45000 


Copper 


1930 


552. 


.3195 


30000-40000 


Gold (pure) 


2100 


1200.9 


.6949 


20380 


Iron, cast 


1900-2200 


450. 


.2604 


20000-35000 


Iron, wrought 


2700-2830 


480. 


.2779 


35000-60000 


Lead 


618 


709.7 


.4106 


1000-3000 


Mercury 


89 


846.8 


.4900 




Nickel 


2800 


548.7 


.3175 




Silver (pure) 


1800 


655.1 


.3791 


40000 


Steel 


2370-2685 


489.6 


.2834 


50000-120000 


Tin 


475 


458.3 


.2652 


5000 


Zinc 


780 


436.5 


.2526 


8500 



Note. — The wide variations in the tensile strength are due 
to the different forms and qualities of the metal tested. In 
the case of lead, the lowest strength is for lead cast in a mould, 
the highest for wire drawn after numerous workings of the 
metal. With steel it varies with the percentage of carbon 
used, which is varied according to the grade of steel required. 
Mercury becomes solid at 89 degrees below zero. 



TABLES 



237 





Decbial Parts of an 


Inch. 




1-64 


.01563 


11-32 


.34375 


43-64 


.67188 


1-32 


.03125 


23-64 


.35938 


11-16 


.6875 


3-64 


.04688 


3-8 


.375 






1-16 


.0625 






45-64 


.70313 






25-64 


.39063 


23-32 


.71875 


5-64 


.07813 


13-32 


.40625 


47-64 


.73438 


3-32 


.09375 


27-64 


.42188 


3-4 


.75 


7-64 


.10938 


7-16 


.4375 






1-8 


.125 






49-64 


.76563 






29-64 


.45313 


25-32 


.78125 


9-64 


,14063 


15-32 


.46875 


51-64 


.79688 


5-32 


.15625 


31-64 


.48438 


13-16 


.8125 


11-64 


.17188 


1-2 


.5 






3-16 


.1875 






53-64 


.82813 






33-64 


.51563 


27-32 


.84375 


13-64 


.20313 


17-32 


.53125 


55-64 


.85938 


7-32 


.21875 


35-64 


.54688 


7-8 


.875 


15-64 


.23438 


9-16 


.5625 






1-4 


.25 






57-64 


.89068 






37-64 


.57813 


29-32 


.90625 


17-64 


.26563 


19-32 


.59375 


59-64 


.92188 


9-32 


.28125 


39-64 


.60938 


15-16 


.9375 


19-64 


.29688 


5-8 


.625 






5-16 


.3125 






61-64 


.95313 






41-64 


.64063 


31-32 


.96875 


21-64 


.32813 


21-32 


.65625 


63-64 


.97438 



Melting Points of Alloys 


ofTij^ 


, Lead, 


AND Bismuth. | 


Tin. 


Lead. Bismuth. 


Melting 
Point in 
Degrees 
Fahren- 
heit. 


Tin. 


Lead. 


Bismuth. 


Melting 
Point in 
Degrees 
Fahren- 
heit, 


2 


3 1 5 


199 


4 


1 




372 


1 


1 1 4 


201 


5 


1 




381 


3 


2 


5 


212 


2 


1 




385 


4 


1 


5 


246 


3 




1 


392 


1 




1 


286 


1 


1 




466 


2 




1 


334 


1 


3 




652 


3 


1 




367 











238 



TABLES 



Melting, Boiling and Freezing Points in 


Degrees 1 


Fahrenheit of Various Substances. 1 


Melts at 
Substance. Degrees 


Substance. 


Melts at 
Degrees 


Platinum 3080 


Antimony 


810 


Wrought-Iron 2830 


Zinc 


780 


Nickel 2800 


Lead 


618 


Steel 2600 


Bismuth 


476 


Cast-iron 2200 


Tin. 


475 


Gold (pure) 2100 


Cadmium 


442 


Copper 1930 


Sulphur 


226 


Gun Metal 1960 


Bees-Wax 


151 


Brass 1900 


Spermaceti 


142 


Silver (pure) 1800 


Tallow 


72 


Aluminum 1140 


Mercury 


39 


„ , Boils at 
Substance. Degrees 


Substance. 


Freezes at 
Degrees 


Mercury 660 


Olive Oil 


36 


Linseed Oil 600 


Fresh Water 


32 


Sulphuric Acid 590 


Vinegar 


28 


Oil of Turpentine 560 


Sea Water 


27X 


Nitric Acid 242 


Turpentine 


14 


Sea Water 213 


Sulphuric Acid 


1 


Fresh Water 212 







INDEX 

PAQS 

Relative advantages of steam and hot water heat- 
ing 7 

Heating systems 7 

Ventilation 8 

Heat ,. . 9 

STEAM HEATING 11 

STEAM BOILERS 13 

Round steam boilers 14 

Casings 17 

Firepot 17 

Grate 17 

Simplicity of the grates 18 

Rectangular sectional boilers 19 

Firepots 20 

Boiler capacity 21 

Safety valves 23 

Water column 26 

Damper regulator 26 

Pressure gauges 28 

Smoke pipes 29 

Chimney flues 30 

Fuel combustion 31 

PIPE SYSTEMS 33 

One-pipe system 33 

One-pipe system with separate return 34 

One-pipe overhead system 35 

Two-pipe system 37 



INDEX 

PACT'. 

One-pipe circuit steam heating system. 37 

The overhead steam heating system 38 

Heating surface 39 

Reducing size of steam mains 40 

Steam mains 41 

RADIATION 42 

Direct radiation ■. 42 

Indirect radiation , 42 

Direct-indirect radiation . 43 

Radiators 44 

Radiator connections 56 

Air valves 57 

Radiator valves 58 

Unsteady water line in boiler 63 

STARTING A STEAM HEATING PLANT m 

Steam heating plant 69 

Estimating 74 

Specification and contract for a steam heating 

plant 75 

HOT WATER HEATING 77 

Round water heaters 78 

Casings 81 

Firepot 82 

Grate 82 

Simplicity of the grates 82 

Rectangular sectional heaters 83 

Firepots 85 

Heater capacity .• ^Q 

Thermometers 87 

PIPE SYSTEMS 88 

Quadruple main water heating system 89 

Double main system 89 



INDEX 

PAGF, 

Single pipe overhead system 90 

Heating surface , 92 

Hot water mains 92 

Kadiator connections 93 

RADIATION 95 

Direct radiation v 95 

Indirect radiation 95 

Direct-indirect radiation 96 

Radiators 97 

Radiator connections 108 

Radiator valves 108 

Check valves 112 

Expansion tank 114 

Water gauge , 120 

Altitude gauge 121 

STARTING A HOT WATER HEATING PLANT. 123 

Hot water heating plant 126 

Specifications and contract for a hot water heating 

plant 127 

Estimating 129 

Smoke pipes 129 

Chimney flues 130 

Fuel combustion „ 131 

FURNACE HEATING 133 

FURNACES 134 

General instructions 139 

Proper size of furnace 141 

Proper size of chimney 142 

Location of the furnace 142 

Hot air pipes 143 

Partition 143 

Cold air 144 



INDEX 

PAGE 

Openings in foundation 145 

Good workmanship 145 

STEAM AND GAS FITTING 150 

The expansion of wrought-iron steam and water 

pipes 150 

Wrought-iron pipe 150 

Fittings 151 

Pipe bends 152 

Pipe machines 154 

Tools 154 

GAS FITTING 157 

Gas supply pipe 158 

Street supply pipe 158 

Frost in pipes 159 

Fittings 160 

Connecting a meter 160 

Reading a meter 161 

Blow-torch 165 

Mantle lamps 167 

Gas proving pump 171 

Cleaning gas fixtures 171 

GAS BURNERS 174' 

GAS STOVES AND FLUES 183 

GAS FITTING IN WORKSHOPS 187 

USEFUL INFORMATION 192 

USEFUL KINKS 203 

MEDICAL AID 220 

TABLES 225 



INDEX 



TABLES. 

PAGE 

Diameter of chimney flues for given amounts of 
steam radiation 31 

Proper size of one and two-pipe steam mains 41 

Square feet of heating surface in : 

Two-column steam radiators 53 

Three-column steam radiators 54 

Four-column steam radiators 55 

Pipe tap for one and two-pipe steam radiator con- 
nections 57 

Temperature of steam at varying pressure in de- 
grees Fahrenheit 73 

Proper size of hot water mains 93 

Pipe tapping for hot water radiators 93 

Square feet of heating surface in: 

Two-column water radiators 105 

Three-column water radiators 106 

Four-column water radiators 107 

Capacity of expansion tanks 121 

Approximate radiating surface to cubic capacities 
to be heated 123 

Dimensions of chimney flues for given amounts of 
direct steam radiation 131 

Dimensions and heating capacities of furnaces. . . . 145 

Loss of heat by transmission with a difference of 70 
degrees Fahrenheit between the indoor and out- 
door temperatures 146 

Wind velocities 146 

Proper sizes of furnace pipes to heat rooms of vari- 
ous dimensions 147 



INDEX 

PAGE 

Approximate velocity of air in flues of various 

heights 148 

Capacity of furnaces to maintain an inside tem- 
perature of 70 degrees with an outside tempera- 
ture of degrees 149 

Pressure of water for each foot in height 196 

Boiling points of various fluids 197 

Square feet of surface in one lineal foot of pipe of 

various diameters 197 

Lap-welded steel or charcoal iron boiler tubes 225 

Wrought iron and steel steam, gas and water 

pipe 226-227 

Wrought iron and steel extra strong pipe 228 

Wrought iron and steel double extra strong pipe. 229 

Table giving velocity of flow of water 230 

Table giving loss in pressure 230 

Tensile strength of bolts 231 

Table of fhe properties of saturated steam 232 

Areas of chimneys 233 

Reduction of chimney draft by long flues 233 

Areas of circles , 234 

Circumference of circles 235 

Properties of metals 236 

Decimal parts of an inch 237 

Melting points of alloys of tin, lead and bismuth. . . 237 
Melting, boiling and freezing points of various sub- 
stances 238 



standard American Locomotive 
== Engineering == 

COMPLETE IN ALL ITS BRANCHES 

Including Railroad Signaling, Block Systems, Breakdowns, 

Valve Setting, Air Brakes, with Complete 

Questions and Answers. 

By C. F. SWINGLE and W. G. WALLACE. 



Over four volumes in one. Bound in full Persian 
Morocco, with flap, pocketbook style, stamped in 
gold. Full gold edges. 1,150 pages. Fully illustrated. 
Special, Exclusive Edition. Printed by Frederick J. 
Drake & Company expressly for Sears, Roebuck & 
Company. It contains: 

MODERN LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING, Twen- 
tieth Century Edition, with Questions and Answers. 
By C. F. Swingle. Retail price $3.00. 

RAILWAY SIGNALING AND STATION WORK. 
By W. G. Wallace. Retail price $2.00. 

STANDARD EXAMINATION QUESTIONS AND 
ANSWERS, for Firemen. By W. G. Wallace. Re- 
tail price $1.50. 

MODERN AIR BRAKE PRACTICE, Its Use and 
Abuse, including the new E. T. Equipment. By Frank 
H. Dukesmith. Retail price $1.50. And all the matter 
contained in the following two books, each one of 
which retails for $1.50. 

LOCOMOTIVE BREAKDOWNS. THE W A L- 
SCHAERT VALVE GEAR. Making full retail value 
of the Standard American Locomotive Engineering, $11.00. 

A VERITABLE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF LOCOMO- 
TIVE ENGINEERING, including BOILERS, 
VALVES, VALVE GEAR AND VALVE SET- 
TING, AIR BRAKE PRACTICE, LOCOMOTIVE 
BREAKDOWNS, COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES, 
RAILWAY SIGNALING, BLOCK SYSTEMS, 
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS, and FULLY 
ILLUSTRATED. 

No. 3R9210. STANDARD AMERICAN LOCOMO- 
TIVE ENGINEERING. 

OUR SPECIAL PRICE $2.85. 
If by mail, postage extra, 22 cents. 



SEARS, ROEBUCK & COMPANY, Chicago, 111. 



STANDARD AMERICAN ELECTRICIAN 



A COMPLETE ENCYCLOPEDIA 
OF ELECTRICITY 

By HORSTMANN and TOUSLEY 



Four volumes in one. Bound in full Persian morocco, 
Pocketbook style, with flap. Stamped in gold. Full 
gold edges. 600 Pages. Fully illustrated. Special, 
Exclusive Edition. Printed by Frederick J. Drake 
& Company expressly for Sears, Roebuck & Com- 
pany. The following four important works by Lead- 
ing Electrical Authorities, SWINGLE, HORST- 
MANN and TOUSLEY are contained in this one 
volume. 

MODERN ELECTRICAL CONSTRUCTION. Re- 
tail value $1.50. 

MODERN WIRING DIAGRAMS AND DESCRIP- 
TIONS. Retail value $1.50. 

ELECTRICAL WIRING AND CONSTRUCTION 
TABLES. Retail value $1.50. 

DYNAMO TENDING FOR ENGINEERS. Retail 
value $1.50. 

Making the full retail value of the STANDARD 
AMERICAN ELECTRICIAN $6.00 

THIS COMPLETE AND AUTHORITATIVE WORK IN- 
CLUDES ELECTRICAL CONSTRUCTION, WIRING, DIA- 
GRAMS AND DESCRIPTIONS, ELECTRICAL WIRING 
CONSTRUCTION TABLES, DYNAMO TENDING FOR EN- 
GINEERS, and is PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED. 

No. 3R9230 STANDARD AMERICAN ELECTRI- 
CIAN. 

OUR SPECIAL PRICE $2.68. 
If by mail, postage extra, 20 cents. 



SEARS, ROEBUCK & COMPANY, 

Chicago, 111. 



STANDARD AMERICAN CYCLOPEDIA 

OF STEAM ENGINEERING 



Including Electricity for Engineers, Boilers, Steam Turbines, Refrigeration, 

Lubrication, Pumps, Valve Setting, Marine Engine, Mectianical 

and IVIachine Design and Questions and Answers 

for Stationary and Marine Engineers. 



By CALVIN F. SWINGLE and OTHERS. 



Four volumes in one. Bound in full Persian Morocco. 
Pocketbook style with flap. Stamped in gold. Full 
gold edges. 1,200 pages. Fully illustrated. Special, 
Exclusive Edition. Printed by Frederick J. Drake & 
Company expressly for Sears, Roebuck & Company. 
This work covers everything contained in the follow- 
ing volumes; 

SWINGLE'S TWENTIETH CENTURY HAND 
BOOK FOR STEAM ENGINEERS AND ELEC- 
TRICIANS. By Calvin F. Swingle. Retail price $3.00. 

COMPLETE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS AND 
ANSWERS FOR MARINE AND STATIONARY 
ENGINEERS. By Calvin F. Swingle. Retail price $1.50. 

PRACTICAL MECHANICAL DRAWING AND 
MACHINE DESIGN SELF-TAUGHT. By Charles 
Westinghouse. Retail price $2.00. 

DYNAMO TENDING FOR ENGINEERS AND 
ELECTRICITY FOR STEAM ENGINEERS. By 
Henry C. Horstmann and Victor H. Tousley. Retail 
price $1.50. 

Making the full retail value of the STANDARD 
AMERICAN CYCLOPEDIA OF STEAM ENGI- 
NEERING, $8.00. 

INCLUDING 

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF STEAM ENGINES. BOILERS 
AND DYNAMOS, VALVES AND VALVE SETTING, ME- 
CHANICAL STOKERS, THE STEAM TURBINE, REFRIG- 
ERATION, PUMPS, AIR COMPRESSORS, SETTING STEAM 
VALVES, LUBRICATION, ELECTRICITY FOR ENGIN- 
EERS, COMPLETE ENGINEERS' CATECHISM, MECHAN- 
ICAL AND MACHINE DRAWING, and PROFUSELY IL- 
LUSTRATED. 

No. 3R9200 STANDARD AMERICAN CYCLOPEDIA 
OF STEAM ENGINEERING. 

OUR SPECIAL PRICE $2.78. 
If by mail, postage extra, 22 cents. 



SEARS, ROEBUCK & COMPANY, Chicago, 111. 



American Biachsmithlng, Tooismiths' 



AND; 



steel workers' Manual 

By HOLMSTROM and HOLFORD. 



Two volumes in one. 600 pages. Fully illustrated. 
Bound in silk cloth. Special, Exclusive Edition. 
Printed by Frederick J. Drake & Company expressly 
for Sears, Roebuck & Company. Contains: 

MODERN BLACKSMITHING, RATIONAL 
HORSESHOEING AND WAGON MAKING. By 
J. G. Holmstrom. Retail price $1.00. 

CORRECT HORSE, MULE AND OX SHOEING. 
By J. G. Holmstrom. Retail price $1.00. 

TWENTIETH CENTURY TOOLSMITHS' AND 
STEEL WORKERS' MANUAL. By Holford. 
Retail price $1.50. 

BLACKSMITHING. It comprises particulars and de- 
tails regarding the anvil, tool table, sledge, tongs, 
hammers, how to use them, correct position at anvil, 
welding, tube expanding, the horse, anatomy of the 
foot, horseshoes, horseshoeing, hardening a plow- 
share, babbitting, etc. 

TOOLSMITHING AND STEEL \yORKING. Covers 
composition of cast tool steel, heating, forging, ham- 
mering, hardening, etc. Tempering, welding, anneal- 
ing, cause of tools cracking when hardening. 

LINE ENGRAVINGS AND DIAGRAMS. The book 
is very fully illustrated and contains numerous work- 
ing rules and recipes. Experienced blacksmiths, steel 
and tool workers, as well as beginners, will get 
pleasure and helpful suggestions from this book. 

No. 3R9240 AMERICAN BLACKSMITHING TOOL- 
SMITH AND STEELWORKERS' MANUAL. 



OUR SPECIAL PRICE, $1.62. 
If by mail, postage extra, 22 cents. 



SEARS, ROEBUCK & COMPANY, 
Chicago, 111. 



Builders^ Reliable Estimator 

Contractors^ Guide 



By FRED T. HODGSON. 



Two volumes in one, nearly 550 pages. Fully illus- 
trated with diagrams. Bound in silk cloth. Special, 
Exclusive Edition. Printed by Frederick J. Drake & 
Company expressly for Sears, Roebuck & Company. 

HODGSON'S MODERN ESTIMATOR AND CON- 
TRACTORS' GUIDE, for pricing all builders' work. 
By Fred T. Hodgson. Retail price $1.50. 

THE BUILDERS' AND CONTRACTORS' GUIDE 
to correct measurement for estimating. By Fred 
T. Hodgson and W. M. Brown, C. E. Retail price 
$1.50. 

FIFTY HOUSE PLANS, showing perspective views 
and floor plans. Retail price $1.00. 

A COMPLETE GUIDE FOR PRICING ALL 
BUILDERS' WORK. It contains many tables, rules 
and useful memoranda. GUIDE TO CORRECT 
MEASUREMENTS is found in the second part of 
this work. This shows how all kinds of odd, crooked 
and difficult measurements may be taken, to secure 
correct results. Profusely illustrated. 

No. 3R9120 BUILDERS' RELIABLE ESTIMATOR 
AND CONTRACTORS' GUIDE. 



OUR SPECIAL PRICE $1.45. 
If by mail, postage extra per set, 23 cents. 



SEARS, ROEBUCK & COMPANY, 
Chicago, 111, 

: ••. .1 



Modern Painting, Hardwood 
Finishing and Sign writing 

Covering Every Branch of this Profession. 



By ARMSTRONG, HODGSON AND DELAMOTTE. 



Three volumes in one. Nearly 700 pages. Fully illus- 
trated. Special, Exclusive Edition. Printed by Fred- 
erick J. Drake & Company expressly for Sears, Roe- 
buck & Company. Contains: 

THE PAINTER'S ENCYCLOPEDIA. By Geo. D. 

Armstrong. Retail price $1.50. 

THE UP-TO-DATE HARDWOOD FINISHER, in- 
cluding manipulation of wood of all kinds. By Fred 
T. Hodgson. Retail price $1.00. 

SIGN WRITING. By F. Delamotte. Retail price 
$1.50. 

Including 

PAINTS AND PAINTING, 

WOOD FINISHING, 

MODERN UP-TO-DATE ARTISTIC 
SIGN PAINTING, 

AND PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED. 
No. 3R9150 MODERN PAINTING, HARDWOOD 

FINISHING AND SIGN WRITING. 



OUR SPECIAL PRICE $1.89. 
If by mail, postage extra, 23 cents. 



SEARS, l^OEBUCK & COMPANY, 

Chicago, 111. 



mm GUIDE 



A Complete Encyclopedia of the Construction, 
Operation and Management of Gas Engines, Gasoline 
Engines, Automobiles, Farm Engines and Traction En- 
gines, together with Complete Questions and Answers. 
By Stevenson & Brookes. Three volumes in one. Over 
600 pages. Fully illustrated. Bound in Full Persian 
Morocco, with flap, pocketbook style. Special, Exclu- 
sive Edition. Printed by Frederick J. Drake & Com- 
pany expressly for Sears, Roebuck & Company. Con- 
tains: 

PRACTICAL GAS AND OIL ENGINE HAND 
BOOK, including stationary, marine and portable gas 
and gasoline engines. By L. Elliott Brookes. Retail 
price, $L50. 

THE AUTOMOBILE HAND BOOK. By L. Elliott 
Brookes. Retail price $L50. 

FARM ENGINES AND HOW TO RUN THEM, 
AND THE TRACTION ENGINE. By James H. 
Stevenson. Retail price $1.00. 

GAS AND OIL ENGINES. AUTOMOBILES. 

FARM ENGINES, TRACTION ENGINES AND 
HOW TO RUN THEM. 

HOW TO RUN A THRESHING MACHINE. 

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 

THIS WORK IS PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED. 

No. 3R9220 Standard American Gas and Oil Engine, 
Automobile and Farm Engine Guide. 



OUR SPECIAL PRICE $2.19. 
If by mail, postage extra, 22 cents. 



SEARS, ROEBUCK & COMPANY, 
Chicago, 111. 



CYCLOPEDIA 

OF 



Bricklaying, Slenc Masonry, Concrete, 
SIhccos and Plasters 

CoTering Everything Connected with the Allied Trades 

By FRED T. HODGSON. 



Three volumes in one. 840 pages. Fully illustrated. 
Bound in silk cloth. Special, Exclusive Edition. 
Printed by Frederick J. Drake & Company expressly 
for Sears, Roebuck & Company. Contains: 

THE TWENTIETH CENTURY BRICKLAYER'S 
AND MASON'S ASSISTANT. By Fred T. Hodg- 
son. Retail price $1.50. 

CONCRETES, CEMENTS, MORTARS, PLASTERS 
AND STUCCOS. How to Make and How to Use 
Them. By Fred T. Hodgson. Retail price $1.50. 

DIAGRAMS AND PLATES. Retail price $1.50. 
Bricklaying — Stone Masonry — Concretes and Ce- 
ments — Mortars, Plastering and Stucco Work. 
There are 1,000 Illustrations and Diagrams. 

No. 3R9130 CYCLOPEDIA OF BRICKLAYING, 
STONE MASONRY, CONCRETES, STUCCOS 
AND PLASTERS. 



OUR SPECIAL PRICE $1.62. 
If by mail, postage extra, 21 cents. 



SEARS, ROEBUCK & COMPANY, 

Chicago, 111. 



MoDEiN MACHii Shop Practice 



INCLUDING 



PATTERN MAKING and 
FOUNDRY PRACTICE 

By BROOKES and HAND. 



Two volumes in one. 800 pages. Fully illustrated. 
Bound in cloth. Special, Exclusive Edition. Printed 
by Frederick J. Drake & Company expressly for 
Sears, Roebuck & Company. Contains: 

TWENTIETH CENTURY MACHINE SHOP 
PRACTICE. By L. Elliott Brookes. Retail price 
$2.00. 

PATTERN MAKING AND FOUNDRY PRACTICE. 
By L. H. Hand. Retail price $1.50. This book is 
intended for the practical instruction of machinists, 
engineers, etc. 

MODERN MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE. It clearly 
but concisely describes the properties of steam, the 
indicator, horse power, electricity, measuring de- 
vices, machinists' tools. 

PATTERN MAKING AND FOUNDRY PRACTICE. 
Nearly every problem explained is taken from an 
actual pattern. 

HUNDREDS OF ILLUSTRATIONS. These illustra- 
tions show views of the latest machines, the most 
up-to-date and improved belt and motor-driven ma- 
chine tools, with full information as to their use and 
operation. 

No. 3R9250 MODERN MACHINE SHOP PRAC- 
TICE, including PATTERN MAKING AND 
FOUNDRY PRACTICE. 

OUR SPECIAL PRICE $1.75. 
If by mail, postage extra, 24 cents. 



SEARS, ROEBUCK & COMPANY, 
Chicago, 111. 



1 



Easy Steps in Architecture 



AND 



Arcnitectural Drawing 

For students. Carpenters and Builders 

By FRED T. HODGSON. 



Two volumes in one. 600 pages. Fully illustrated. 
Bound in silk cloth. Special, Exclusive Edition. 
Printed by Frederick J Drake & Company expressly 
for Sears, Roebuck & Company. Contains: 

BUILDERS' ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF- 
TAUGHT. By Fred T. Hodgson, Architect. Re- 
tail price $2.00. 

EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE. By Fred T. 
Hodgson, Architect. Retail price $2.00. 

FIFTY HOUSE PLANS. Retail price $1.00. 

MAKE A COMPETENT, SELF-SUPPORTING 
ARCHITECT OF YOURSELF. This work con- 
tains everything that is necessary for a complete, 
self-teaching course in architecture. 

ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF-TAUGHT. 
This part of the work is especially designed for 
carpenters and builders and other wood workers who 
desire to learn drawing at home. 

MANY HUNDREDS OF FINE LINE ENGRAV- 
INGS made especially for this work are drawn to 
scale, with twenty-five large, double folding plates. 

No. 3R9140 EASY STEPS IN ARCHITECTURE 
AND ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. 



OUR SPECIAL PRICE $1.45. 
If by mail, postage extra, 25 cents. 



SEARS, ROEBUCK & COMPANY, 

Chicago, 111. 



JUL 



1911 



